Air Medium Research Articles

Three-Dimensional Flutter Numerical Simulation of Wings in Heavy Gas and Transonic Flutter Similarity Law Correction Method

Wind tunnel testing is a crucial method for studying aircraft flutter. Using heavy gas as the wind tunnel medium can mitigate the escalating issue of test models being overweight as advanced aircraft develop. This paper employs an analytical method for numerical calculations of three-dimensional (3D) wing flutter based on fluid–structure interaction (FSI). Flutter calculations for the Goland wing are conducted, and the results in the air medium are consistent with the literature. In contrast, significant differences in flutter behavior are observed in the heavy gas R134a medium. Compared to air, when the model reaches a critical state in R134a, the incoming flow velocity is lower, the incoming flow density is approximately 3 to 5 times air, and the incoming flow dynamic pressure is about 1.1 to 1.2 times that of air. The correction of heavy gas flutter data is crucial for wind tunnel testing. This paper proposes a correction method based on the unsteady transonic flow similarity law proposed by Bendiksen under quasi-steady conditions. Attempts are made to revise relevant published wind tunnel tests and heavy gas flutter calculation results. The transonic flutter similarity law effectively explains the flutter similarity of rigid models in both heavy gas and air media. Still, it fails in cases with highly reduced frequencies and low mass ratios, such as those encountered with flexible wings.

Ecstatic Forms: Air and the Apsarā during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)

Abstract As a minor deity in Buddhist art, the apsarā (feitian/hiten) is a beloved figure in China and Japan today. Their images adorn bottles of high-end liquor, while their names are bestowed upon moon-bound spacecrafts. Ecstatically tumbling and twirling in the air, the impossible contortion of their acrobatic bodies creates a sense of weightlessness and boundlessness. This essay argues that the apsarā only emerged as an art-historical subject during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), when intellectuals, artists and performers, on both sides of the frontlines, became concerned with the intermingling of space and form through the medium of air. Tracing how modern writers and choreographers used the apsarā to adumbrate modernist aspirations of movement, speed, aviation and progress, I show how the apsarā was folded into new international discourses on mood, atmosphere and space in art and dance in the early twentieth century.

One-step synthesis of needle-like lanthanum-doped TiO2 nanomaterials and its photoconductivity activity in an air medium

One-step synthesis of needle-like lanthanum-doped TiO2 nanomaterials and its photoconductivity activity in an air medium

Measurement and analysis of photoacoustic pressure induced by weak microsecond pulsed light

The photoacoustic effect (PAE) of weak microsecond pulsed light (WMPL) has immense potential for application to biomedical engineering. However, practical measurements and theoretical analysis of the photoacoustic pressure of WMPL are lacking. Hence, we constructed a WMPL photoacoustic pressure measurement system using an electret piezoelectric sensor and multi-wavelength parameter-adjustable pulsed light generator. Based on the system, the photoacoustic pressure interacting with the air medium induced by the WMPL with different optical parameters was measured. The measured pressure data were analyzed using the fixed variable method, and the pressure response characteristic was obtained. It was found that the measured results conform to the law of energy conversion but have a specific trend for some wavelengths. The analysis and discussion were conducted based on the classical wave equation of the PAE, and the extended wave equation was presented. It is shown that the proposed approach provides a reliable basis for the measurement and analysis of WMPL photoacoustic pressure.

Effect of carbon coating on improved electrical and electrochemical performance of Li3Co2SbO6

Abstract We reported a novel high voltage cathode having layered structure and manifold improvement (144%) in electrochemical performance on carbon coating Li3Co2SbO6. The carbon-coated Li3Co2SbO6 has been prepared using a high temperature solid-state method in an air medium with appropriate stoichiometry of the oxide and carbon source (sucrose). The x-ray diffraction and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy results have confirmed homogeneous carbon coating on oxide (Li3Co2SbO6) surface without disturbing phase, structure and morphology. The immediate effect of carbon coating resulted in electrical conductivity enhancement of the carbon coated Li3Co2SbO6 by four order of magnitudes ∼2.79 × 10−4 Scm−1 at room temperature vis-a-vis pristine Li3Co2SbO6. The electrochemical performance of the carbon coated Li3Co2SbO6 has shown sustainable improvement indicating redox activity by more than one Li+ transaction. The carbon coated Li3Co2SbO6 cathode exhibited an initial discharge capacity of 110 mAhg−1 compared to 45 mAhg−1 for its pristine counterpart. The improvement in electrochemical capacity on carbon coating, as reported in this work, is the highest ever compared to prior literature reports on Li3Co2SbO6.

Flat double-layer metal-only metasurface with polarization-dependent operation in a C/X dual band

In this communication, a dual-band, orthogonal polarization transmission metasurface antenna operating at 6.5 GHz and 9.5 GHz is proposed. The element of this transmitarray is composed of only two identical layers of metal plates, with air medium filling the space between the upper and lower layers. Each layer has four sets of staggered I-slots, thus ensuring dual-frequency orthogonal polarization operation. Moreover the proposed element overcomes the challenge of achieving full 360-degree phase shift in dual-layer metal-only structures without any additional connecting elements. By altering the length of the slots, it can achieve a continuous full 360-degree phase shift while maintaining a transmission amplitude above −2 dB and exhibits co-polarized transmission in both bands. Then a prototype containing 16 × 16 elements is designed and fabricated to verify the feasibility of the design scheme. The measurement results, which are consistent with the simulation, demonstrate that the maximum gains of 24.85 and 27.64 dBi are obtained at 6.4 GHz and 9.4 GHz, with corresponding aperture efficiencies of 23.18% and 20.4% and a 3-dB gain bandwidth of 15.6% and 22.34%. The good transmission coefficients of the element and the dual-band capability make the design a competitive candidate for satellite and high-power applications.

Hydrophobic surface texture air-liquid phase composite assisted laser processing and tribological properties

In order to improve the surface hydrophobicity and tribological properties of 304 stainless steel, this study used laser processing technology to prepare three types of surface textures (CSA, CM2, CM5) in an air and air–liquid composite environment. By testing the surface quality, wettability and tribological properties of the texture, it was found that the surface quality and interfacial friction control ability of CSA were poor due to the influence of the processing environment. However, due to the air–liquid composite assisted laser preparation, while using the air medium laser processing technology to ensure the texture depth, the scattering effect of bubbles and the influence of negative pressure on the solid–liquid interface during the liquid phase assisted laser processing remove the oxide recast layer and burr on the surface of the sample, and improve the surface quality of the texture, thereby improving the surface friction behavior of the sample. This study promotes the development of surface texture laser processing technology and broadens the application field of 304 stainless steel.

Optimization of a metal additively manufactured hydraulic silencer with array resonators

As mobile machines shift to electrification, hydraulic circuit noise, previously masked by combustion engine noise, has emerged as a significant concern. To address acoustic comfort issues, this paper investigates an innovative solution for high-performance noise reduction in hydraulic circuits. The proposed silencer design incorporates an optimized array of Helmholtz resonators, strategically arranged to broaden the narrow band characteristics of single resonators. The chosen configuration effectively reduces pressure pulsations across a broad mid-frequency spectrum. While this design is well-established in air medium, its application in a hydraulic oil medium is pioneering. Fabricated through metal additive manufacturing, the silencer undergoes testing on a dedicated bench. Transmission Loss measurements validate both the concept and the optimization methodology.

MODELING THE ENTRY OF AIR CONTAMINANTS INTO A ROOM

A mathematical model of air contaminant (products of human activity) inflow into the isolated air space has been developed. On the basis of the formula modified by us the simulation of human respiration with carbon dioxide, water vapor and heat emission is implemented. The model also takes into account the heat input from the human body through clothing. Applying numerical modelling ANSYS CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) on the basis of continuity equations and Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes equations "RANS" (Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes) the following results on air medium state change in the isolated space were obtained: - the human respiratory cycle is modelled at simultaneous heat transfer from the body surface through clothes into the studied air space; - the exponential equation of the trend line of concentration to observation time was obtained; - monitoring and rendering (visualization) of changes in concentration, temperature and relative humidity in the space under study by time along the room height was performed. These results and regularities served as initial data for solving a number of model non-stationary problems on aerodynamics and heat and mass transfer in the room. The inverse problem of general exchange ventilation was to be solved. Changes in the state of the air environment initially contaminated with carbon dioxide, heat and water vapors were studied when people were in the studied space and the supply and exhaust ventilation was operating. Of the four air change schemes planned for the study, the results for one schemes are presented in this publication. The dynamics of assimilation of excess heat, humidity and carbon dioxide made it possible to assess the efficiency of ventilation systems and to predict improvements in their energy efficiency when air parameters are brought up to standard values.

Controlled single step synthesis, structural and electrode response of honeycomb layered Li3Co2SbO6

We report, for the first time, a single step synthesis process of Li3Co2SbO6 in air medium using the solid state reaction route. The structural analysis confirmed single phase layered crystal structure comprising 2D diffusion path along a-axis and b-axis. The Rietveld refinement of Li3Co2SbO6 yielded monoclinic crystal structure with C2/m space group having cell parameters, a = 5.216 A°, b = 8.989 A° and c = 5.171 A° with Li/Co mixed occupancy. The TEM analysis corroborated the layered structure which is consistent with x-ray analysis. Raman and FTIR analysis confirmed the presence of -CoO6 and -SbO6 octahedra in Li3Co2SbO6 with edge shared arrangement to form a layered stack comprising tunnel type pathway for Li+ ion transport. The estimated electrical conductivity of Li3Co2SbO6 is found to be ∼6.9 × 10−8 Scm−1 with a band gap ∼ 3.5 eV that suggests poor electronic transport for storage cells. This was observed in the electrochemical response of the Li || LiPF6(EC/EMC) || Li3Co2SbO6 cell. The 1st discharge capacity of Li3Co2SbO6 has been found to be a meagre 45 mAhg−1. Despite lower reversible capacity due to poor electrical transport, stable coulombic efficency observed up to 100 cycles suggest the feasibility of improvements in the electrical and charge transport properties.

Application of the Lambert function in the analytical solution of ballistics problems for flat flight trajectories of a material body, taking into account the gaseous (air) medium

Annotation. The paper describes the use of a special Lambert function for solving problems of ballistics of a material body, when the resistance of a gaseous (air) medium is taken into account. A model of quadratic (based on the speed of movement of a body) resistance of the medium within the limits of an approaching flat trajectory is considered. Problem. Problems of ballistics of a material body are considered in courses of theoretical mechanics, as well as in specialized literature. But, in addition to the cited literature, this research, like, for unraveling the simplified level of the material body in the problems of ballistics for flat trajectories of the power of a special function Lambert, which allows us to essentially simplify the algorithm for developing the parameters of the trajectory of a gentle slope (floor) type. Goal. The goal of the work is based on a framed model of a material body for flat trajectories in problems of modern ballistics on this basis, using a special Lambert function, to be controlled by a visible decoupling Didion, the determination of the main parameters of these types of crash trajectories. Methodology. Physic, mechanical and mathematical models are constructed that adequately describe the parameters of the collapse of a material body/particle that collapses along a flat trajectory when the wind is not supported , which are proportional to the square of the fluidity of the particles. For a more manual description of the parameters of the trajectory of the motion, there is a special Lambert function, which is tabulated in [1], or can be expanded with the help of computer in the middle of “Maple 8”. Practical value. The results obtained in the work can be used to improve and clarify engineering methods of calculation in problems of external ballistics of a material body, taking into account the quadratic (in terms of movement speed) resistance of the air environment

Design a metamaterial based applicator for hyperthermia cancer treatment

This research describes a metamaterial-based applicator with and without water bolus for cancer treatment. The metamaterial based applicator consists of a double spiral antenna and a slotted square shape artificial magnetic conductor (SSA) structure. The antenna is designed on a low-cost FR4 substrate with dimensions of 32 × 32 × 3.27 mm3, and the SSA unit cell which behaves as a metamaterial, is designed on an RT-duroid substrate with dimensions of 15 × 15 × 0.76 mm3 (size of the unit cell). The 4 × 4 unit cells of the SSA structure are optimized to direct the maximum field toward the cancer tissue. The proposed applicator (antenna + SSA structure) is tested for hyperthermia treatment using a heterogeneous phantom (skin, fat, and muscle layers) and the human-mimicked model with an air medium and a water bolus layer. The applicator’s performance is evaluated in terms of specific absorption rate (SAR), penetration depth (PD), and effective field size (EFS). Further, thermal analysis is performed, with 1.5 W of input power at the antenna port, and the maximum temperature rise of 44 0C is obtained. The cancer tissue (tumor) temperature ranges between 41 °C to 45 °C, sufficient for effective hyperthermia therapy. Finally, the suggested metamaterial based applicator is built and tested in the presence of a phantom and head tissue simulating liquid.

The Problem of Heat and Mass Transfer of a Half-Space with an Air Flow with Periodic Changes in Air Temperature

A system of differential equations, boundary and initial conditions for calculating temperature and moisture content fields in a homogeneous halfspace, the boundary of which is blown by an air flow, is formulated. The heat exchange of the boundary with the air medium occurs according to the Newtonian law, and mass transfer — according to the Dalton evaporation law. In the initial state, the air and the material have the same temperature, and water vapor, both near the surface of the material and outside the boundary layer, is in a saturation state, so there is no exchange of heat and moisture between the air and the material. At some point, the air temperature begins to produce small harmonic fluctuations near its initial value. For a mathematical model of heat and mass transfer, in which the movement of moisture to the surface is considered to be caused only by a drop in moisture content, i.e. the phenomenon of thermal diffusion is neglected, an asymptotic time view of the temperature and moisture content fields is obtained. The moisture content field has the form of a damped harmonic wave, and the temperature field is represented by the superposition of two waves of the same type, which have the same frequency, but different attenuation coefficients and phase velocities. The calculation of the basic wave parameters for a material with clay characteristics is carried out, and the results obtained are compared with experimental data. The constructed solution is a generalization of the Fourier formulas known in the literature, which are valid only in a situation when the material does not contain moisture, and according to the harmonic law, not the air temperature changes, but the surface temperature. The results obtained in the article will be used in geocryology as a theoretical tool in the study of seasonal fluctuations in the thermal and physical state of the soil, which is an important task in planning economic activities in the field of the distribution of frozen rocks.

Biological template hydrothermal synthesis of hollow La-doped one-dimensional CaMnO3 fibers and their enhanced microwave absorption performance

The advancement of military technology, 5G communication, and electronic equipment has increased the demand for efficient electromagnetic wave absorption materials. Calcium manganate (CaMnO3) is a commonly used dielectric absorber due to its excellent dielectric polarization effect. However, traditional ceramic materials like CaMnO3 have low conductivity, making it difficult to achieve impedance matching and electromagnetic loss simultaneously. In this work, to address this issue and create ideal wave-absorbing materials, one-dimensional La-doped CaMnO3 materials were synthesized using a simple biological template hydrothermal method. By studying the relationship between doping content and electromagnetic parameters, it was found that the La-doped CaMnO3 material exhibited excellent electromagnetic wave absorption properties, with a minimum reflection loss (RLmin) of −73.62 dB and a maximum effective absorption bandwidth of 3.3 GHz in the X-band. The introduction of La elements, which have different electronegativities from Ca ions, altered the electron cloud distribution in the sample, leading to the formation of electric dipoles that disrupt charge distribution and dissipate electromagnetic waves. The dielectric loss in fibrous La-doped CaMnO3 is mainly due to interfacial polarization. The fibrous structure allows for increased contact area with the air medium, while the porous structure introduces air bubbles that alter the dielectric properties between the sample and the air medium. This not only enhances impedance characteristics to some extent but also triggers interfacial polarization. Both of these factors help improve the material's ability to absorb electromagnetic waves. The successful creation of this one-dimensional absorbing material opens up possibilities for developing new one-dimensional absorbing materials using a straightforward method.

Thermal analysis of constant surface area tapered helical Coils: Insights from numerical modelling

Helical coils are integral to numerous engineering and domestic applications, from room heaters and vehicle suspensions to nuclear reactors, owing to their high surface area-to-volume ratio that facilitates efficient heat transfer. This study investigates the natural convection heat transfer characteristics of tapered helical coils under radiative heat loss, focusing on both straight and inverted configurations, within an unconfined air medium. The numerical simulations were validated against experimental results with a maximum deviation of 5 % before proceeding to establish the numerical findings. The analysis considers geometric parameters such as non-dimensional pitch (p*), cone angle (θ), and emissivity (ε), along with Rayleigh number (Ra), to elucidate their impact on average Nusselt number (Nu), mass flow rate of air through the coil core, and heat transfer mechanisms. Results reveal distinct behaviors for straight and inverted coils, with varying Ra and θ influencing heat transfer dynamics and airflow patterns. Notably, inverted coils exhibit enhanced heat transfer characteristics compared to straight coils. For straight coils, Nu initially decreases with increasing θ at lower Ra but rises beyond a critical θ at higher Ra due to independent heat dissipation by the coil turns. When θ changes from 0° to 50° at p* = 6, the change in average Nu is approximately 3 % and 10 % for Ra = 108 and 104 respectively. In contrast, for inverted coils, Nu increases with θ across all Ra, owing to the wider top opening facilitating airflow. Furthermore, empirical correlations are developed to predict Nu based on key parameters, achieving high accuracy with deviations of ± 6 % and ± 4 % for straight and inverted coils, respectively. These correlations provide robust tools for optimizing thermal management in diverse applications. Overall, this study contributes significant insights into tapered coil performance, essential for advancing heat transfer technology and design optimization.

Damage behavior of the surrounding medium caused by different blast-induced dynamic and static loadings

The combination of the dynamic action of explosion stress wave and the static action of explosion gas expansion is what primarily drives rock-breaking blasting, and their different intensities lead to different blasting effects. Therefore, experiments were conducted to explore the damage behaviour of the surrounding medium caused by different blast-induced dynamic and static loadings using digital laser Schlieren and digital laser dynamic caustic systems. The results were as follows: In the air medium, when the explosives detonated, TATP (triacetone triperoxide) had the strongest quasi-static effect, and the highest velocity explosion shock wave and products compared with those of NHN (nickel hydrazine nitrate) and DDNP (diazodinitrophenol). Part of the TATP explosion product was ahead of the shock wave front, whereas for NHN and DDNP, their explosion products were behind the propagation of the shock wave front. The highest pressure peak of TATP was the result of the combined action of the shock wave and explosion product impacting the sensor. In the solid medium, NHN, the explosive with the strongest dynamic load, had the strongest stress wave and highest stress intensity factor peak of the main crack. The velocity reached the peak value at the early stage of propagation, and the dynamic action had a dominant effect on the cracking of the crack; the stronger the dynamic action, the higher the crack initiation energy. The stress intensity factor and propagation rate of the main crack of TATP with the strongest quasi-static effect decreased slower than those of the other explosives; therefore, the main crack propagation time and length were the longest. After cracking, the quasi-static effect dominated the process of crack propagation, where the stronger the quasi-static effect, the longer duration of the driving force of crack propagation. The research results provide a basis for customising explosives for different functions in practical engineering and realising the fine and efficient utilisation of explosion energy.

Investigation of dynamic start-up and thermal airflow characteristics for air-carrying energy heating and cooling system: Sidewall, ceiling, and composite walls

The dynamic start-up process of the air-carrying energy radiant system (ACERS) is crucial for operation control. The dynamic heat transfer process of sidewall, ceiling, and composite walls for air-carrying energy heating and cooling systems was investigated using field experiments and numerical simulation. A new dynamic start-up model was proposed to rapidly predict the dynamic response time and heat transfer surface temperature for controlling indoor temperature. Six schemes with different thermal flow characteristics resulting from temperature difference and velocity uniformity were quantitatively studied through numerical simulation, which helps determine their rationality. The results show that the dynamic start-up model aligns well with experimental data, with an error of less than 3 %. The fast response time of the air medium heat transfer surface for heating/cooling is short (less than 0.5 h). The ceiling provides better adjustability compared to the sidewall. In the unstable state (Gc < 0), the Gc-related buoyancy has a vertical promotion effect, leading to increased convection and decreased vertical temperature difference in the room. Adding the sidewall heating to the ceiling heating reduces the indoor vertical temperature difference by 23 % for the composite walls heating compared to the ceiling heating. Convection accounts for 27 % of the sidewall heating, which is 2.7 times higher than that of ceiling heating (11 %). Combining the dynamic start-up model with numerical analysis enables rapid prediction and analysis of the thermal performance of ACERS, which can be applied to advanced control and optimization for energy-saving applications.

Vibration and acoustic characteristics of aluminium-silicon carbide metal matrix composite plate under thermal environment

This paper investigates the vibration and acoustic characteristics of an aluminium-silicon carbide (Al-SiC) simply supported composite plate under thermal loads. The vibrational response induced by the temperature rise is analysed using Kirchhoff’s plate theory and the weighted integral (Galerkin) method. Additionally, the plate is acoustically modelled in conjunction with the air medium to investigate its acoustic response. The acoustic far-field radiation equation determines the plate’s sound pressure level (SPL). The findings reveal that the MMC I (65% SiC/A356.2 MMC SiC particulates reinforced, with three different sizes) plate exhibits a lower overall sound pressure level in the lower frequency range than other MMCs. Moreover, replacing the aluminium plate with the MMC I plate reduces the overall sound pressure level by 5.54 dB due to the high stiffness associated with the mixture of silicon carbide reinforcement in the aluminium matrix.

Features of achievement of limiting speed values of track tests of ballistic type aircraft

The development of high-speed ballistic aircraft with speeds exceeding 1000 m/s is currently a priority abroad and in Russia. The effectiveness of new such products is confirmed by track tests at the speed of their use. Test sites with rail tracks exist in almost all countries, for example in the USA there are more than 15 of them. Double-rail, monorail and various combinations thereof, differing in length, width of the rail pair, rails and the design of the track itself, including a sealed shell over the rail track to fill it with a lighter one environment. The longest track in the USA is Holloman AFB, located in New Mexico with a length of 15536 m. They have track ranges with different lengths and their own special design in England, France, Germany, Canada, Italy, Japan, India, China, Korea, Turkey and other countries, including African continent. High-speed range tests in Russia are carried out on the experimental installation “Rocket Rail Track 2500”, located on the territory of the FKP “GkNIPAS named after L. K. Safronov”. The experimental installation consists of a rail track placed on a special base, providing the necessary vertical profile of the track with sections of ascent and straight horizontal movement, as well as a technological descent section for braking moving technological equipment. The product under test is placed on a rocket track sled moving along rails on sliding supports. To accelerate the track carriage, solid fuel rocket engines are used, the thrust of which is selected based on ballistic calculations to achieve the required test speed. The length of the track plays an important role in achieving the maximum acceleration speeds of moving track equipment. The enormous aerodynamic drag, proportional to the square of the speed of movement of the carriage, when tested at high speeds, leads to the need to reduce the midsection and mass of the mobile unit. An increase in engine thrust leads to an increase in the weight and cost of track equipment, as well as to the need to increase the safety margin of sliding supports. However, an increase in test speed can be achieved by replacing the air medium with gases that have a significantly lower density, for example, helium. Track testing of new aircraft or their elements, although cheaper than flight testing, is quite expensive. In this regard, work on the theoretical assessment of replacing the medium from ambient air with helium, as well as with a mixture of helium and air at different concentrations in an indoor gallery on a track rail track, is a new, relevant and practically useful task. The work performed a numerical simulation of the problem of supersonic flow around a helium-air mixture at different volumetric ratios. Numerical values of aerodynamic resistance were obtained at a sled speed of 830 m/s. The results of numerical calculations of the motion dynamics of a 3D model of monorail track equipment, which are planned for use in conducting full-scale fire experiments, are presented.

Design, construction, and testing of an exploding wire pulsed plasma system for generating shock waves in industrial applications

Exploding Wire Pulsed Plasma System (EWPPS) used in oil recovery operations has been construct and developed with an initial energy release of 1.5 kJ in a fusion laboratory. Recently, the final experiments have been carried out on the purpose device operating in microsecond time scale in air and fluid medium successfully. In this setup, a single wire feeder is used for tests. Also, to study and develop the shock waves caused by wire explosions in the industry, the diagnostic tools of voltage probe, current coil, pressure probe and photodiode have been used. Choosing the optimal material of wire is one of the basic factors in creating a suitable shock wave. In addition, the impact of wire inductance on discharge current, voltage, pressure and shock wave strength has been investigated by applying two sets of wires, refractory (Cu, Cu-Ni, and Steel) and non-refractory (W, W-Al, Mo). The results show that the strongest shock wave is produced while the transition from warm wire to dense plasma happens. The soft X-ray intensity of both wire series has been measured using a photodiode BPX-65 (<10 keV). The comparison shows higher X-ray intensity for non-refractory wires than that for refractory wires. In good agreement, the maximum value of the shock wave was 8.7 and 6.6 MPa for non-refractory metals with high inductance and refractory metals with low inductance, respectively.