Agricultural Water Conservation Research Articles

Evolutionary game analysis of multi-agent cooperation strategy analysis in agricultural water conservancy PPP project under digitization background

This study constructed a system dynamics (SD) evolutionary game model, from which we analyzed the conditions that need to be met by multi-agents to achieve cooperation in agricultural water conservancy (AWC) Public-Private Partnership (PPP) projects. Simultaneously, this study used numerical simulation to depict the impact of initial participation willingness, reward, punishment, income, and other parameters of local governments, project enterprises, and farmers on the evolution strategy. The results firstly showed that the basic conditions for tripartite cooperation are to strengthen the rewards and punishments for project enterprises and improve the participation benefits of farmers. Secondly, it showed that increasing the rewards for farmers and improving the project dividend benefits can effectively motivate farmers to participate. Thirdly, it showed that enhancing the incentive subsidies and reputation benefits for project enterprise’s participation, as well as strengthening the supervision of local government, boosts the motivation of project enterprises significantly. However, it is vital to ensure that the reward amounts are not too high to allow local government to play its guiding role efficiently. Lastly, the results indicated that digital technology can help reduce the participation cost of local government, project enterprises and farmers, and improve the external reputation benefits of each participant, thus forming a win-win situation for all three participants. Analyzing the cooperation strategies of the three parties in AWC PPP projects provides theoretical support and a decision-making basis for the efficient operation of AWC PPP projects under the digital background, and also provides practical policy recommendations for the high-quality development of AWC.

Determination of Sustainable Factory Locations for the Lemon Agroindustry using AHP, Mapping and Water Management

This research was conducted in Suntenjaya Village, Lembang, and West Bandung Regency, focusing on lemon agro-industrial development. Research was conducted using the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) approach, area mapping, and water management to determine a sustainable factory location. The main objective is the selection of factory sites by integrating lemon production, considering sustainable agriculture aspects, product aspects, and water conservation programs. The results of this study provide a strong foundation for sustainable agro-industrial development that will support sustainable agriculture, local economy, and environmental protection. The research also combined qualitative and quantitative elements with a mixed approach that included Focus Group Discussion (FGD) and AHP, and the results showed that integrated drainage management was the top priority, followed by sanitation, clean water, reforestation, and sustainable agriculture. Mapping of areas based on geographical characteristics, such as rainfall, slope, and soil type, provided a map of water infiltration rates, which became a key guide in planning water conservation programs. The ultimate location for the lemon agroindustry is half of Desa Suntenjaya, mostly from the center to the northern area, which needs to consider proximity to markets in Bandung Regency and City, easy access to sources of raw materials for lemons, water availability, adequate transportation infrastructure, access to energy sources, suitable climate for lemon growth, and the availability of adequate labor in the region.

Long‐term effects of management practices on soil water, yield and water use of dryland wheat: A global meta‐analysis

AbstractSoil water conservation in dryland agriculture mainly depends on precipitation. We chose 35 long‐term experiments and analysed the data by using meta‐analysis to check how fallow management methods affect soil water storage of dryland winter wheat planting (SWS), precipitation storage efficiency (PSE), crop yield and water use efficiency (WUE). No‐tillage (NT), compared to conventional tillage (CT) in the fallow period, increased PSE, SWS, grain yield and WUE by 32.9%, 27.1%, 30.5% and 22.6%, respectively. Reduced tillage (RT) and subsoil tillage (ST) increased PSE by 15.2% and 11.7%, SWS by 17.4% and 15.0% and grain yield by 15.5 and 13.8%, respectively, but these had a non‐significant effect on WUE. The conservation tillage methods interacted significantly with the residue management and fallow mulching practices. Compared to CT, the conservation tillage methods with fallow mulching increased PSE, SWS, grain yield and WUE, but the growing of cover crops (designated as biological mulching) decreased PSE, SWS and grain yield by 17.3%, 13.0% and 32.0%, and had a non‐significant impact on WUE. Under the condition of straw mulching, NT increased PSE, SWS, grain yield and WUE by 43.7%, 38.1%, 40.6% and 42.9%, respectively, compared to CT. NT and RT increased the PSE, SWS and WUE, under normal mean annual precipitation (MAP), however, ST increased these observations under wet MAP, compared to CT. The effects of tillage methods varied with soil texture, and they were highly interrelated with water conservation, wheat yield and water use. We conclude that compared to conventional tillage, the conservation tillage methods increased soil water conservation during the fallow period, which increased wheat yield and water use. Moreover, NT with or without residue retention increased the fallow water conservation and wheat yield. Crop residues should be retained while applying RT and ST to grow winter wheat in dryland regions.

Drought, water management, and agricultural livelihoods: Understanding human-ecological system management and livelihood strategies of farmer's in rural California

Mitigating impact between agricultural livelihoods and water conservation efforts in the face of significant drought requires a sophisticated understanding of policy efforts enacted to manage water supply and the logic of human livelihood decision-making. This case study extends literature on human-water decision-making in agricultural areas by using a political ecology framework to understand how and why farmers facing significant water shortages make livelihood decisions, and how such decisions are affected by broader socio-political contexts. Specifically, we focus on farmers' livelihood strategies in the Central San Joaquin Valley of California. Here, the effects of extreme and persistent drought have resulted in a resource management governance structure that forces farmer decision-making within the narrow bounds of the newly emerging California water policy. We argue that government public policy intervention has created a potential system of “big winners and big losers,” leading to three divergent strategies farmers adopt: Nimbility, Abandonment, and Policy Engagement. These findings raise questions about how policy interventions shape livelihood strategies of farmers in the Tulare Lake Basin and by extension other areas where public policy intervention is emerging to respond to decreased water supply resources.

Persulfate photolysis and limited irrigation of recycled wastewater for turfgrass growth: Accumulation of pharmaceutical and personal care products and physiological responses

Recycled wastewater effluent irrigation and implementing limited irrigation rates are two promising strategies for water conservation in agriculture. However, one major challenge is the accumulation and translocation of Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) from recycled water to crops. This study investigated the effects of UV persulfate (UV/PS) treatment of recycled water and limited irrigation rate on PPCPs accumulation and physiological responses of St. Augustine turfgrass via a 14-week field trial. Carbamazepine (CBZ), sulfamethoxazole (SMX), triclosan (TCS), fluoxetine (FLX) and diclofenac (DCF) were spiked at 0.1–1.5 µg/L into recycled water and two limited irrigation rates corresponding to 60 % and 80 % of reference Evapotranspiration (ETo) were applied. Results showed that UV/PS removed 60 % of CBZ and > 99 % of other PPCPs from recycled water. Irrigation with UV/PS treated recycled water resulted in approximately a 60 % reduction in CBZ accumulation and complete removal of SMX, DCF, FLX and TCS in both turfgrass leaves and roots. A more limited irrigation rate at 60 % ETo resulted in a higher accumulation of CBZ accumulation compared to 80 % ETo. Similarly, the canopy temperature increased under 60 % ETo irrigation rate compared to 80 % ETo, suggesting that turfgrass under 60 % ETo was more prone to water stress. Applying a 60 % ETo irrigation rate was not sufficient to maintain the turfgrass quality in the acceptable range. A negative correlation between the visual quality and cumulative mass of PPCPs in turfgrass leaves at different irrigation rates was observed, yet irrigation rate was the major driver of turfgrass overall quality and health. Insights from this study will help to integrate recycled water with treatment and limited irrigation, thereby enhancing agricultural water reuse practices.

Effects of Film Mulching on Soil Microbial Diversity and Community Structure in the Maize Root Zone under Drip Irrigation in Northwest China

Mulching is a widely used agricultural water conservation measure in the semiarid regions of Northwest China. In order to explore the response process of different film mulching methods to soil microorganisms, we characterized the effect of different film mulching methods on soil microbial diversity and community structure characteristics in the root zone of drip-irrigated maize during the heading and maturity stages using high-throughput sequencing of 16SrDNA and ITS amplicons combined with bioinformatics analysis. Full mulching (FM) was contrasted to controls of no mulching (NM) and half-mulching (HM), yielding an order of microbial diversity, abundance, and evenness scores of HM > FM > NM. The HM and FM treatments reduced the relative abundance of Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria (the most abundant bacteria) in the bacterial community structure but increased that of Acidobacteria and Chloroflexi. In the fungal community structure, HM decreased the abundance of Sordariomycetes but increased that of Eurotiomycetes (the most abundant fungi). The abundance and community structure of bacteria were significantly correlated with soil temperature and those of fungi with pH. HM improved network complexity and competitive relationships among bacteria, while FM increased the relationship between fungal groups and the symbiosis of fungal communities. HM significantly increased maize yield (20.37% and 6.01% above NM and FM, respectively). In summary, full mulching was more favorable than no mulching for soil microbial diversity and community structure composition, but soil microbial diversity and yield responded better to half-mulching. These results provide a background for improving the yield of drip-irrigated maize and protecting the microbial ecosystems of farmland soils.

Iot Based Smart Irrigation System using Artificial Intelligence

Sustainable agriculture depends on effective water management, and the Internet of Things (IoT) and artificial intelligence (AI) combine to offer a novel approach to irrigation process optimisation. In order to improve water utilization in agriculture, this research suggests a comprehensive system that includes buzzers, LCD displays, relays, water pumps, soil moisture sensors, AI algorithms, and water pumps. An AI algorithm at the centre of the system evaluates data collected in real time from field-installed soil moisture sensors. These sensors gather information on the soil’s moisture content, which offers important insights into the real water needs of the crops. After analysing this data, the AI programme decides how best to schedule irrigation. The system’s integration with a relay is intended to regulate when a water pump is activated. According to the suggestions of the AI algorithm, the relay provides accurate control over the irrigation operation, enabling on-demand watering. By avoiding over- irrigation and conserving water, this lowers the chance of waterlogging and associated problems. The system has an LCD display to improve user engagement and offer real-time feedback. Important details like irrigation status, soil moisture levels, and AI-driven suggestions are conveyed through the display. With the help of this function, farmers may monitor the system’s performance and make well-informed judgements. Furthermore, a buzzer is incorporated to deliver auditory notifications in the event of crucial occurrences, such low soil moisture levels or system faults.This guarantees timely resolution of problems that might affect crop health and system performance as a whole. A number of benefits are provided by the suggested AI-driven water management system, including improved agricultural output, water conservation, and operational effectiveness. Water scarcity and resource optimisation in irrigated fields are addressed by the system, which offers a comprehensive precision agriculture solution by utilising the capabilities of IoT devices, soil moisture sensors, relays, water pumps, buzzers, and LCD displays

An Evaluation System of the Modernization Level of Irrigation Districts with an Analysis of Obstacle Factors: A Case Study for North China

Irrigation districts are a pivotal infrastructure of agricultural water conservancy engineering. Implementing modernization will be the main task of large-scale irrigation districts for a considerable amount of time in the future. In this study, four typical large-scale irrigation districts in North China were investigated: the Renmin Shengliqu, Weishan, Shijin, and Zuncun irrigation districts. The concept of a modern irrigation district was deconstructed to establish an evaluation index system which includes four second-level indicators, twelve third-level indicators, and thirty fourth-level indicators. A hybrid approach based on AHP and OWA was used to quantify indicator weights used in group decision making. TOPSIS was introduced to measure the modernization level of the four irrigation districts. An obstacle factor diagnosis model was applied to search for key obstacle factors that will affect the modernization and improvement of the irrigation districts. The results showed that (1) the modernization levels of the Renmin Shengliqu, Weishan, Shijin, and Zuncun irrigation districts in 2020 and 2025 were 0.3916 and 0.5755, 0.3748 and 0.5396, 0.4493 and 0.6012, and 0.2343 and 0.6166, respectively. The evaluation results indicate that the four irrigation districts are still in the beginning phase (or even preparation phase) of the modernization process. (2) Eight indicators were identified as the main common obstacle factors for the four evaluated irrigation districts, including the irrigation water-use efficiency factor, the coverage proportion of information technology, the proportion of efficient water conservation irrigation areas, and so on. (3) There are two effective methods to enhance the modernization level of the four irrigation districts: improving water resource utilization efficiency and strengthening the management system with an emphasis on informatization. The present study can enrich the theoretical evaluation of irrigation districts and provide a scientific basis for the modernized construction and management of irrigation districts in China.

Virtual water flows and drivers in the international trade of agricultural products of the regional comprehensive economic partnership.

The regional comprehensive economic partnership (RCEP) is today the largest free trade area in the world. This paper examines agricultural trade in the RCEP from 2010 to 2019 through the perspective of virtual water. And the drivers of the virtual water flow between China and the RCEP are also explored. The results are as follows: the virtual water flow during the study period was 2,576.51 billion m3. From a temporal perspective, the annual virtual water flow over the study period is characterized by a slow rise-significant fall-slow rise. It has the characteristics of concentration in spatial distribution and water resources and product structure. However, the concentration degree showed a downward trend during the study period. Then, we have divided the major trading into four categories based on whether there is a shortage of water on both sides of the trade. In terms of the drivers of virtual water flows between China and the RCEP, we have used the gravity model to arrive at the following findings: crop yields, bilateral economic scale, and agricultural labor resources are the main drivers. Our research results have reference values for adjusting bilateral agricultural trade and water conservation.

Evaluating Losses from Water Scarcity and Benefits of Water Conservation Measures to Intercity Supply Chains in China.

The severe water scarcity in China poses significant economic risks to its agriculture, energy, and manufacturing sectors, which can have a cascading effect through the supply chains. Current research has assessed water scarcity losses for global countries and Chinese provinces by using the water scarcity risk (WSR) method. However, this method involves subjective functions and parameter settings, and it fails to capture the adaptive behaviors of economies to water scarcity, compromising the reliability of quantified water scarcity loss. There is a pressing need for a new method to assess losses related to water scarcity. Here, we develop an agent-based complex network model to estimate the inter-regional and intersectoral impacts of water scarcity on both cities and basins. Subsequently, we evaluate the supply chain-wide economic benefits of four different water conservation measures as stipulated by the 14th Five-Year Plan for the Construction of a Water-Saving Society. These measures include increasing the utilization rate of recycled water in water-scarce cities, reducing the national water consumption per industrial value-added, and implementing agricultural and residential water conservation measures. Results show that direct losses constitute only 9% of the total losses from water scarcity. Approximately 37% of the losses can be attributed to interregional impacts. Among the water-scarce cities, Qingdao, Lanzhou, Jinan, and Zhengzhou pose a significant threat to China's supply chains. Agricultural water conservation yields the highest amount of water savings and economic benefits, while residential water conservation provides the highest economic benefit per unit of water saved. The results provide insights into managing water scarcity, promoting cross-regional cooperation, and mitigating economic impacts.

Multiple regression analysis of the mechanism of the role of infrastructure development in rural economic growth

Abstract The improvement of China’s economic level makes the society’s requirements and standards for infrastructure constantly improve. In order to effectively promote the rapid development of the rural economy, it is necessary to strengthen the construction of rural infrastructure. This paper provides a comprehensive plan for rural infrastructure construction and analyzes its mechanism of action on rural economic development in depth. Taking rural economic growth as the explanatory variable and infrastructure construction as the explanatory variable, the multiple linear regression model is chosen to analyze the impact of rural infrastructure on rural economic growth. The unknown parameters are estimated by the least squares method. The model is tested and modified based on the diagnostic methods of covariance expansion factor and other covariates to obtain the final results. Through empirical analysis, rural economic growth = -15.1935 + 0.184*rural transportation + 0.0983*rural education + 2.4923*agricultural science and technology + 0.3652*agricultural water conservancy, and agricultural science and technology has the greatest impact on rural economic growth. The local area can improve rural infrastructure in three aspects: investment strength, investment focus, and investment and financing mechanisms.

Effect evaluation of agricultural water conservation policies in China

Effect evaluation of agricultural water conservation policies in China

Research on Seepage Control Construction Technology of Reservoir Embankments in Agricultural Water Conservancy Engineering

Research on Seepage Control Construction Technology of Reservoir Embankments in Agricultural Water Conservancy Engineering

A new framework for evaluating water use reduction strategies using an integrated, holistic, and transparent approach (Urmia Lake basin case study)

Agriculture and food security have always faced challenges related to water scarcity, so agricultural water conservation is the most important strategy for overcoming this challenge. In this study, the REWAS tool developed by FAO and Future Water was used to evaluate the effects of technological and management strategies on real water savings (RWS) in the Zarrineh River sub-basin, Iran. Nine farms were investigated (wheat, corn, tomato, sugar beet), including control and treatment farms. According to changes in water consumption and return flows, RWS was calculated for various scenarios of field interventions. To assess the water consumption in Basin scale, REWAS was simplified the accounting framework for water consumption (consumed and unconsumed). In the Zarrineh River sub-basin, the use of the techniques applied in the treatment farm, compared to the control farm (according to farmer customary practices), resulted in a significant reduction of non-beneficial consumption. For example, according to the REWAS evaluation in West s17 farn, the treatment farm consumed the most useful water compared to the control farm (331 mm and 267 mm, respectively), which led to the most useful water consumption at basin scale (to the order of 3920 mm and 3166 mm). According to the results on the scale of the basin , the highest amount of recoverable discharge was also obtained in the control farm with an increase of 3774 MCM over the treatment farm. Using strategies to reduce water consumption resulted in apparent water saving (AWS) at the farm scale, but these AWS were very different from their RWS at the basin scale and the RWS at the basin scale (13%) was much lower than the AWS at the farm scale (38%). According to the results, apparent water savings (AWS) at the farm scale do not reduce water consumption, and may actually increase it when viewed in a basin scale. REWAS concepts indicate that significant amounts of “lost” water are actually recoverable return flows that can be used by downstream users or contribute to wetlands. According to REWAS concepts, real water savings can only be achieved by preventing non-recyclable backflows. Assessing RWS can help decision makers select sustainable interventions that will improve agricultural water productivity by providing information on farm flows, irrigation networks, and basin scales.

Photosynthetic characteristics, yield and quality of sunflower response to deficit irrigation in a cold and arid environment.

In arid regions, deficit irrigation stands as an efficacious strategy for augmenting agricultural water conservation and fostering sustainable crop production. The Hexi Oasis, an irrigation zone situated in Northwest China, serves as a pivotal area to produce grain and cash crops. Nonetheless, due to the predominant conditions of low rainfall and high evaporation, the scarcity of irrigation water has emerged as a critical constraint affecting crop growth and yield in the area. In order to evaluate the effects of deficit irrigation on photosynthetic characteristics, yield, quality, and water use efficiency of sunflower, a two-year field experiment with under-mulched drip irrigation was conducted in the cold and arid environment of the Hexi Oasis region. Water deficits were implemented at sunflower seedling and maturity and consisted of three deficit levels: mild deficit (65-75% field capacity, FC), moderate deficit (55-65% FC), and severe deficit (45-55% FC). A total of six combined water deficit treatments were applied, using full irrigation (75-85% FC) throughout the entire crop-growing season as the control (CK). The results illustrated that water deficit engendered a decrease in leaf net photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate, and stomatal conductance of sunflower compared to CK, with the decrease becoming significant with the water deficit increasing. A mild water deficit, both at the seedling and maturity phases, precipitated a significant enhancement (p< 0.05) in leaf water use efficiency. Under mild water deficit, stomatal limitation emerged as the predominant factor inducing a reduction in the photosynthetic capacity of sunflower leaves, while as the water deficit escalated, non-stomatal limitation progressively assumed dominance. Moreover, a mild/moderate water deficit at seedling and a mild water deficit at maturity (WD1 and WD3) significantly improved sunflower seed quality under consistent yield conditions and significantly increased irrigation water use efficiency, with an average increase of 15.3% and 18.5% over the two years, respectively. Evaluations utilizing principal component analysis and membership function methods revealed that WD1 attained the highest comprehensive score. Consequently, a mild water deficit at both seedling and maturity (WD1) is advocated as the optimal deficit irrigation strategy for sunflower production within the cold and arid environment of Northwest China.

Can Agroforestry Contribute to Food and Livelihood Security for Indonesia’s Smallholders in the Climate Change Era?

In Indonesia, smallholders have historically practiced agroforestry, which warrants examination in terms of food and livelihood security within sustainable community forest frameworks. Based on a literature review, we analyzed these two forms of security related to smallholder agroforestry practices. Findings indicate diverse agroforestry systems, with 88% focusing on non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and 12% on timber. While 42% prioritize direct food supply, 58% emphasize income generation through product sales. However, agroforestry that does not produce food for direct consumption by smallholders generates revenue for purchasing food necessities. Agroforestry supports both food needs (46–61%) and income (51–54%) for smallholders, surpassing traditional agriculture (13%). Semi-commercial agroforestry (57%) is a predominant livelihood prospect. The remaining 27% are purely subsistence, and 15% are purely commercial. However, the commercialization of agroforestry that focuses only on high-value commodities results in a negative impact on biodiversity. There is a concomitant decrease in environmental services for climate change mitigation and adaptation. Biodiversity remains crucial for climate resilience, health care, and food security in rural communities. Semi-commercial agroforestry is a midpoint for achieving multifunctional agriculture (biodiversity, soil and water conservation, food security, and income) in the climate change era. The research directly related to food security and ecosystem services quantification remains limited, necessitating further investigation. Policy support and incentives are essential for smallholders practicing complex agroforestry for climate adaptation and mitigation.

Comprehensive Evaluation of Agricultural Water Resources’ Carrying Capacity in Anhui Province Based on an Improved TOPSIS Model

In recent years, China has made significant progress in rural revitalization and agricultural modernization. Agricultural water resources play a crucial role in promoting high-quality agriculture and ensuring the sustainable use of water resources. This study focuses on assessing the status of agricultural water resources’ carrying capacity in Anhui Province and promoting their sustainable use. The evaluation index weights were determined using the improved structural entropy weighting method under the traditional TOPSIS model. The gray weighted TOPSIS model was then constructed using the gray correlation matrix to evaluate the carrying capacity of agricultural water resources in Anhui Province. The findings indicate that the carrying capacity of agricultural water resources in Anhui Province has shown a fluctuating upward trend from 2000 to 2020. The lowest carrying capacity was observed in 2001, with a comprehensive score of 0.2647, while the highest was in 2020, with a comprehensive score of 0.7004. According to the M-K trend test, the carrying capacity of agricultural water resources in Anhui Province is expected to increase in the future. Specifically, the carrying capacity in the southern region of Anhui Province is gradually increasing, while that in the northern region is decreasing. The central cities have remained relatively stable in recent years. To ensure the sustainable use of agricultural water resources, it is recommended that Anhui Province increase the construction of agricultural water resource management and field water conservation facilities, as well as promote the construction of high-standard farmland. These measures will contribute to the high-quality development of agriculture and the coordinated spatial use of water resources.

Dissemination of climate smart agricultural knowledge through farmer field schools (FFS): analyzing the application CAS knowledge by smallholder farmers

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to investigate the effects of climate smart agriculture knowledge transfers. As well as to examine the application of climate-smart agricultural (CSA) knowledge such as conservation agriculture, irrigation systems, integrated soil fertility management, bioenergy and agroforestry by smallholder farmers in Kenya.Design/methodology/approachThe study applied comparative research methodology to compare climate smart agriculture knowledge application between smallholder participants in farmer field schools (FFS) and no FFS participation. This study used household data from 759 randomly selected rural agricultural households in three counties in Kenya. The study applied multivariate probit model to estimate CSA knowledge application by farmers who participated in field trainings and non-FFS participation farmers.FindingsThis study established that climate smart agriculture knowledge transfer through FFS increases farmers’ application of critical aspects of climate smart agriculture knowledge practices such as irrigation system, conservation agriculture and soil and water conservation. Such aspects have been noted as effective interventions against adverse climate change effects such as persistent droughts and flooding and soil infertility. Further findings illustrated that farmers who received CSA knowledge transfers applied agricultural insurance to mitigate rising climatic risks on their farms. Knowledge transfer interventions targeting affordability through subsidizing agricultural insurance are probable and more cost-effective measures that can be used to reduce smallholder farmers’ exposure to climate change-related risks.Originality/valueThis study provides information that was previously unknown about climate smart agriculture knowledge transfers and application among farmers who participated in field trainings and non-FFS participation farmers by using empirical data.

Climate change and the livelihoods of food crop farmers in Lesotho: Lessons for the implementation of the national climate change adaptation strategy.

The vast majority of Lesotho's rural population is reliant on agriculture for survival. However, Lesotho, Southern Africa is extremely vulnerable to the effects of climate change, which has a negative impact on rural livelihoods. Furthermore, despite the fiscal challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic, Lesotho's National Climate Change Policy Implementation Strategy has been hampered by implementation issues and has yet to be implemented. This sparked the necessity for this research, which aims to inform the government of Lesotho on how farmers are combating climate change in their own tiny way. This study employs a survey to gather data from 200 farmers from farming villages across the country's 10 regions. According to the findings of this study, farmers have experienced climate change in the areas of drying rivers, delayed on-set of rainfall, and excessive frost or cold. As a result of these events, farmers have experienced poorer agricultural yields, increased insect and disease attacks, and lower-than-normal harvests. The adaptation methods the farmers are using include the employment of indigenous technology for pest and disease control, fruit tree planting, conservation agriculture (water and soil conservation), and rainwater harvest storage for use during dry seasons. Some of these adaptation strategies are feared to cause further environmental challenges for Lesotho. Therefore, in order to enhance the lives of Lesotho's farmers, the government of Lesotho should consider implementing the National Climate Change Policy Implementation Strategy.

Broadband Measurements of Soil Complex Permittivity.

Agriculture is a major consumer of freshwater and is often associated with low water productivity. To prevent drought, farmers tend to over-irrigate, putting a strain on the ever-depleting groundwater resources. To improve modern agricultural techniques and conserve water, quick and accurate estimates of soil water content (SWC) should be made, and irrigation timed correctly in order to optimize crop yield and water use. In this study, soil samples common to the Maltese Islands having different clay, sand, and silt contents were, primarily, investigated to: (a) deduce whether the dielectric constant can be considered as a viable indicator of the SWC for the soils of Malta; (b) determine how soil compaction affects the dielectric constant measurements; and (c) to create calibration curves to directly relate the dielectric constant and the SWC for two different soil types of low and high density. The measurements, which were carried out in the X-band, were facilitated by an experimental setup comprising a two-port Vector Network Analyzer (VNA) connected to a rectangular waveguide system. From data analysis, it was found that for each soil investigated, the dielectric constant increases notably with an increase in both density and SWC. Our findings are expected to aid in future numerical analysis and simulations aimed at developing low-cost, minimally invasive Microwave (MW) systems for localized SWC sensing, and hence, in agricultural water conservation. However, it should be noted that a statistically significant relationship between soil texture and the dielectric constant could not be determined at this stage.