Agricultural Diversification Research Articles

Exploring the Potential of Agriculture Diversification as a Pathway to an Improved Smallholder Livelihood Dietary System in Nepal

Agriculture, a cornerstone of Nepal’s economy, is dominated by smallholder farmers cultivating staple crops under resource and input constraints, leading to declining productivity amid rapid population growth and urban migration. This study explores the role of agricultural diversification in enhancing dietary diversity and improving smallholder livelihoods using panel data from the Nepal Household Risk and Vulnerability Survey (2016–2018). Analysis through the Simpson diversification index and food consumption scores reveals a strong positive correlation between agricultural diversification and dietary diversity. Key determinants include market access, irrigation systems (rainfed or canal-based), input availability (fertilizers and labor), and land type. Dry season crop diversification was positively associated with dietary diversity, while market access showed a significant negative impact on dietary diversity as distance increased. Upland areas exhibited higher potential for diversification, especially in the dry season, driven by improved access to inputs and irrigation. Policy recommendations highlight the need to enhance infrastructure in upland regions, improve market access, and ensure input availability, particularly fertilizers and labor, to support seasonal diversification. Such measures are essential for strengthening food security, nutritional diversity, and economic resilience among smallholder farmers in Nepal.

Sustainability requires the integration of farmer knowledge, scientific advancements, and comprehensive innovation.

This viewpoint paper emphasises the need to diversify food production methods to simultaneously combat hunger and reduce environmental problems. The recommendations of the UN Food System Summit 2021 relate primarily to (i) the conservation of natural ecosystems, (ii) the sustainable management of existing agricultural land while increasing productivity and (iii) the restoration of already degraded land. Europe in particular faces unique challenges, such as reducing pollution and promoting organic farming up to 25 percent of the agricultural land area while maintaining food production. Ongoing efforts aim to create a transparent, fair and multi-level regulatory framework to support the Green Deal. The implementation of the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD), which will sooner or later affect a larger proportion of European farmers, should support the transition. Science and innovation play a central role in this, as they are the cornerstones on which sustainable food systems are built. It is imperative that farmers actively participate in the co-design processes and utilise their wealth of experience and creativity to drive these innovations forward. A crucial aspect of the transition to sustainability is changing consumption patterns to limit food waste and reduce meat consumption. While this transition is essential, it is not without its formidable challenges. Diversification of agriculture, encompassing a spectrum of established techniques, is touted as a promising approach to achieving sustainability without sacrificing productivity. Furthermore, integrating truly sustainable agricultural practices with cutting-edge innovations, including new genomic techniques, has the potential to be a transformative solution.

Agricultural legacy shapes plant diversity patterns in mountain grasslands of Maramureș and Bukovina: A cross‐border perspective (Ukraine, Romania)

Abstract We investigated farming practices and grassland plant diversity patterns in the historical regions of Maramureș and Bukovina, located in the central Eastern Carpathians of Romania and Ukraine. We explored the influence of social and historical factors on recent grassland plant diversity, including changes and modifications in land use and grassland management practices. We used stratified random sampling to select 48 grassland parcels in eight villages on the Ukrainian‐Romanian borderlands. We identified the factors that affect the composition and diversity of grassland vascular plants and bryophytes at multiple spatial scales and compared the frequency and timing of historical and recent grassland management practices to distinguish between preserved and modified agricultural traditions. In most of the grassland parcels studied (83% in Romania and 78% in Ukraine), traditional land use persisted. Local plant species richness was primarily influenced by management practices, outweighing the impact of topography and soil factors. Regular mowing at appropriate intensity increased the richness of vascular plants, while grazing promoted the richness of bryophyte species. Modifications to farming systems, observed in all studied villages, were mainly due to declining population and livestock numbers. Although the timing of spring and autumn grazing in hay meadows still adhered to tradition, mowing schedules shifted earlier, especially for the first cut of two‐cut hay meadows. Traditional corralling, fertilization and hayseed application have become rare or discontinued in certain villages, while controlled burning has increased. Past use of mineral fertilizers in Ukrainian villages during the Soviet era influenced the recent diversity and composition of vascular plant species, favouring nutrient‐demanding species. Social factors and agricultural policies indirectly affect biodiversity in semi‐natural grasslands, leaving a tangible footprint even in the most remote areas of the Carpathian Mountains. We provide basic recommendations to preserve the remarkable biodiversity of the region. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Assessing the integration of agroecological principles in smallholder farming systems in North African irrigated plains

ABSTRACT This study assesses the extent to which growers integrate the 13 principles of agroecology within their farm activities. This is a first step that helps to determine the changes required in different farm components to foster the adoption of agroecology. We used the holistic Farm-Level Agroecology Criteria Tool (F-ACT) to assess the alignment with agroecological principles of 31 farms representative of smallholder irrigated family farms in the Merguellil Plain region of central Tunisia. Although various agroecological practices were implemented, the results revealed little integration of agroecological principles at the farm level, estimated at 34% of the full transition. In a difficult production resource access context, recycling and reducing inputs were the principles mostly applied, with the goal of improving resource use efficiency and farm system resilience. More specialized and market-oriented farms tended to rely on conventional practices, while diversified farms, often cultivating their own land, exhibited more sustainable practices. Although producers’ dominant rationale was to improve their market access, thereby often resorting to more conventional practices, we nevertheless noted interesting practices such as mixed crop and livestock production, which could facilitate the transition to more agroecological systems in these lowlands where production factors are scarce.

Diversity of Late Yangshao Agricultural Practices at Xishanping, NW China

ABSTRACT Previous work at the Xishanping site, located in the upper Wei River basin in eastern Gansu Province, NW China, has identified the earliest archaeological evidence for agricultural diversification for the period 5200–4300 cal. yr BP. This study presents the first integrated archaeobotanical and isotopic research on charred crop remains at Xishanping site. Our essay suggests that late Yangshao populations at Xishanping not only implemented a wider mixed-crop millet-based agricultural regime, but to some extent intensified cultivation from around 5200–4800 cal. yr BP. This study enriches current understandings of the spatial and temporal changes in agricultural practices in the late Neolithic Wei River Basin at the dawn of complex society in northern China.

Exploring Diversification Strategies among Italian Farms

The multifunctionality model is receiving more and more attention from policymakers as a result of recent initiatives to build more resilient and sustainable food systems as well as the potential for increased farm revenue. This paper explores the role of multifunctional farming in the Italian agriculture viewed through the lens of an entrepreneurial strategy grounded on-farm diversification. Farm diversification strategies, which broaden the farm’s traditional boundaries to include additional activities at the farm level, help the evolution towards multifunctionality. A policy-driven transition towards multifunctional farming has been noticed in Italy during the past few decades, which has prompted a strategic reconfiguration of the farm’s business models. Drawing on the identified activity of portfolio diversification, this study provides an overview of the analyzed 49,429 Italian farms, by articulating diversification strategies into four entrepreneurial activities, which are related to on/off-farm/farm-related or farm-diverse diversification strategies. This article has attempted to verify the presence of farm types that responded to portfolio diversification management strategies through the use of a cluster analysis on data from the general census of Italian agriculture. Supporting new patterns in the adoption of business models focused on multifunctionality should be considered in European rural development policies.

Sustainable farming practices enhance bacterial diversity and nutrient levels in sorghum rhizosphere soil

This research employs metagenomic analysis to explore bacterial diversity in sorghum rhizosphere soil in response to various sustainable farming practices and their impact on soil fertility. The field experiment with cotton-sorghum cropping system was conducted since 2020 and from 3rd cycle sorghum experiment, the soils were collected and subjected to metagenomics and nutrients availability analysis. We evaluated the impact of different farming approaches: Natural Farming (NF), Organic Farming (OF), integrated crop management (ICM), along with a control (No input farming). The results underscores the prevalence of Proteobacteria phylum across all farming practices, while Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes showed increased presence due to altered soil management and nutrient availability changes. Genus-level analysis revealed shifts in dominant genera, including Acinetobacter, Sphingomonas, Bacillus, and Candidatus nitrososphaera, across different farming practices. Post-harvest soil analysis indicated varied nutrient levels, with ICM showing enhanced nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium availability. ICM, utilizing a balanced mix of organic and inorganic fertilizers, promoted sorghum growth, yielding higher plant height and total dry matter compared to OF and NF, which performed similarly. The study emphasizes the efficacy of a balanced approach like ICM for improving crop production and soil nutrient availability. However, all diversified farming practices exhibited high soil biological diversity compared to the control, highlighting the necessity for continuous long-term soil monitoring across different farming practices to stabilize soil microbiomes, ensure nutrient availability, and support sustainable crop production.

Determinants of livelihood diversification in an integrated agricultural and non-agricultural livelihood system in Ghana

The diversification of livelihoods by households has been widely acknowledged as a way to overcome food insecurity and poverty challenges in developing countries. Diversification of livelihoods helps spread the risk among multiple livelihood earning activities to provide households with a range of their food needs all year round. By examining the integrated livelihood systems of 405 rural farm households in the Upper East Region of Ghana, empirical evidence is provided in this study using the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework to advance arguments in the literature for the creation of sustainable strategies that improve diversified livelihood systems. The mean diversification indices estimated were 0.45 for agricultural diversification systems, 0.32 for non-agricultural diversification systems and 0.59 for integrated agricultural and non-agricultural diversification systems. With the use of the Cragg two-step regression model, we demonstrate that the decision to diversify and the extent of diversification of rural livelihoods are distinct decisions and are influenced by distinct sets of factors. Similarly, for the three categories of livelihood diversification studied, the effect of these factors also differed. The results emphasize the significance of access to good road network, credit and market information in encouraging rural farm households to diversify their livelihoods. In the short term, improving access to credit and market information through community-based initiatives can provide immediate support to rural households. Communities should also organize local markets and cooperatives to strengthen their economic resilience. While government and stakeholders should focus on long-term infrastructure projects, these community actions can complement such efforts and contribute to achieving global and regional goals targeting food insecurity and poverty eradication.

Characterization of differences in seed endophytic microbiome in conventional and organic rice by amplicon-based sequencing and culturing methods.

In this paper, we studied the differences in the endophytic microbial composition of rice seeds grown in conventional and organic farming systems. Our results demonstrate a greater bacterial diversity in conventional farming, while organic farming showcases a higher fungal diversity. Additionally, our research reveals the ability of seed bacterial endophytes to inhibit the growth of three fungal pathogens responsible for causing seedling blight in rice. This study provides valuable insights into the potential use of beneficial seed microbial endophytes for developing a novel microbiome-based strategy in the management of rice diseases. Such an approach has the potential to enhance overall plant health and improve crop productivity.

Farm adaptive business strategies in crisis management: COVID-19

The global COVID-19 pandemic significantly impacted businesses worldwide, with rural businesses being no exception. This study examines the effects of the global crisis on upland farmers in England. It builds on the under-researched area of constrained rural entrepreneurship. Institutional theory is applied as a theoretical lens to understand how crisis events shape the constrained institutional contexts in which farm businesses strategically navigate. Using a qualitative, multiple case study approach, we explore how different farmers, traditionalist and entrepreneurial, have strategically responded to the aftermath of crisis-influenced constraints. Our findings highlight the importance of business strategy—particularly farm diversification—in helping farmers navigate these challenges. We provide a conceptual framework, the Farm Crisis Adaptation Framework, (FCAF) that theorizes farmer adaptation strategies in response to crisis situations. Our findings indicate a greater needed for rural policymakers to help develop the strategic entrepreneurship skillsets of farmers—helping farmers to future-proof their businesses against uncertainties. Moreover, investment is needed in the local and regional economy, establishing a conducive environment supportive of farm development strategies.

Parable of the Svalbard Seed Vault: An Arctic repository for agricultural plant diversity embodies the flawed logic of climate adaptation.

Parable of the Svalbard Seed Vault: An Arctic repository for agricultural plant diversity embodies the flawed logic of climate adaptation.

Crafting State-of-the-art Agroforestry for Bundelkhand using Insights from Past

Bundelkhand, a pivotal land area in Central India, is geographically demarcated across the states of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. The 13 districts in both states share similarities in cultural and socio-economic aspects. This paper commences with a descriptive portrayal of the Bundelkhand region, delving into the agricultural scenario, which is highly influenced by rainfall patterns. The region boasts a dominant agrarian rural population, with more than 40% comprising women. Owing to the lower productivity of wheat, farm diversification has been consistently recommended. In this context, agroforestry presents a respite, fostering resilience at the farm level. Agri-silvicultural and silvipastoral systems are typically recommended for this region and are detailed alongside the traditionally prevailing agroforestry practices of the area. This review synthesizes the need for agroforestry adoption for four major reasons and its impact on the Bundelkhand region. Furthermore, it presents the constraints, problems, and motivational factors for adopting agroforestry, ultimately providing directions for the way forward

The Landscape Ecological Quality of Two Different Farm Management Models: Polyculture Agroforestry vs. Conventional

Low-intensity, diversified agricultural land use is needed to counteract the current decline in agrobiodiversity. Landscape ecology tools can support agrobiodiversity assessment efforts by investigating biodiversity-related ecological functions (pattern–process paradigm). In this study, we test a toolkit of landscape ecology analyses to compare different farm management models: polyculture agroforestry (POLY) vs. conventional monoculture crop management (CV). Farm-scale analyses are applied on temperate alluvial sites (Po Plain, Northern Italy), as part of a broader multi-scale analytical approach. We analyze the landscape ecological quality through landscape matrix composition, patch shape complexity, diversity, metastability, and connectivity indices. We assess farm differences through multivariate analyses and t-tests and test a farm classification tool, namely, a scoring system based on the relative contributions of POLY farms, considering their deviation from a local CV baseline. The results showed a separate ecological behavior of the two models. The POLY model showed better performance, with significant positive contributions to the forest and semi-natural component equipment and diversity; agricultural component diversity, metastability; total farm diversity, metastability, connectivity, and circuitry. A reference matrix for the ecological interpretation of the results is provided. Farm classification provides a quick synthesis of such contributions, facilitating farm comparisons. The methodology has a low cost and quickly provides information on ongoing ecological processes resulting from specific farm management practices; it is intended to complement field-scale assessments and could help to meet the need for a partially outcome-based assessment of good farm practice.

Assessing the Impact of Casing Material Thickness on Yield and Biological Efficiency of Milky Mushroom (Calocybe indica P&C)

Calocybe indica, known as the milky mushroom, has significant potential for agricultural expansion and economic development, particularly in West Bengal, India. This study investigates the impact of different casing material thicknesses (0.5”, 0.75”, 1.0”, and 1.5”) on the yield and biological efficiency of C. indica. Using a Completely Randomized Design (CRD), the effects on primordia initiation, sporophore maturation, yield, and biological efficiency were assessed. Results indicated that a casing thickness of 1.0” was optimal, leading to the quickest primordia initiation (10.4 days) and sporophore maturation (9 days), and yielding the highest total yield (717.5 g) and biological efficiency (71.75%). In contrast, thinner and thicker casings resulted in lower yields and efficiencies. The findings suggest that a 1.0” casing thickness significantly enhances C. indica cultivation, providing practical recommendations for commercial mushroom farming. This optimization can support the development of milky mushroom farming in West Bengal, offering new opportunities for local farmers and contributing to regional agricultural diversification and economic growth.

Narrowband IoT in Livestock Farming: A Technological Innovation for Productivity and Sustainability

The integration of technology in livestock farming is crucial for enhancing production efficiency and animal welfare. This study aimed to develop and evaluate the implementation of a Narrowband IoT (NB-IoT)-based automated monitoring system in poultry farming. Using an experimental design, the research involved 30,000 day-old chicks at PT. Anugerah Teknologi Ternak in Central Java, Indonesia. The NB-IoT system collected real-time data on environmental parameters and poultry activity. Time-series analysis revealed non-stationary data, while correlation analysis showed a strong negative relationship between temperature and humidity (r = -0.8521). Anomaly detection identified 13.33% of observations as anomalous, demonstrating the system's capability for early issue detection. Regression modeling (R-squared = 0.7261) indicated that temperature and humidity significantly influence poultry productivity. The study concludes that NB-IoT implementation in poultry farming has significant potential for enhancing productivity through real-time monitoring and early anomaly detection, supporting more efficient and sustainable precision farming practices. However, limitations in data stationarity and sample generalizability suggest the need for further research to improve long-term predictions and broaden applicability across diverse farming contexts.

Enhancing Coconut Processing Efficiency: Design and Evaluation of A Cost-Effective Coconut De-Husking Machine

Coconut (Cocos nucifera) plays a crucial role in agricultural economies, particularly in coconut-producing regions, where traditional de-husking methods are labor-intensive and time-consuming. This study focuses on the design, fabrication, and evaluation of a coconut de-husking machine aimed at improving processing efficiency, reducing labor demands, and increasing throughput. The machine was designed to address key performance factors such as frame stability, blade strength, and spring tension. Testing demonstrated that the machine consistently outperformed manual methods, reducing de-husking time to an average of 96.4 seconds compared to 164.8 seconds for traditional techniques. The machine achieved an efficiency rate of 80%, with a throughput capacity of 0.0086 kg/s, significantly higher than the manual method's 0.005 kg/s. Additionally, the machine's cost, approximately N32,000, makes it accessible to smallholder farmers, offering a practical solution for improving productivity and sustainability in coconut farming. The study highlights the potential for mechanized de-husking to transform traditional practices, reduce labor costs, and contribute to economic growth in coconut-rich regions. Future research should explore further optimization of the machine design and its adaptability to different coconut varieties and moisture levels, ensuring broad applicability in diverse farming contexts.

THE IMPACT OF LIBERALIZATION, PRIVATIZATION, AND GLOBALIZATION (LPG) ON INDIAN AGRICULTURE

The study examines the influence of Liberalization, Privatisation and Globalization (LPG) reforms on agricultural sector in India since their initiatives in 1991. The study explores evolving disputes and government measures in providing solution for the problem faced by the marginal and small-scale agriculturists. The research objective is to examine the influence of LPG on export of agricultural items, Technological innovations, Geographical disparities along with ecofriendly practices. The study examined the strengths such as enhancement in export of agricultural products and diversification of harvests, weaknesses are identified as geographical differentiation and reduction in public funding these aspects are analysed through SWOT analysis. Encouragement or opportunities on LPG reforms includes combination of technological innovations and ecofriendly procedures whereas, threats are identified as financial disparities among farmers and environmental depletion. This complete analysis offers a mixed view of varied influence of LPG on agriculture in India, Proposing the requirement for sustainable approach and higher inclusiveness for agriculture expansion. KEYWORDS: Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization, SWOT analysis, Indian agriculture, regional disparities, Environmental sustainability, Technological advancements, Government policies

Tomato dry farming as an agroecological model for California’s drought resilient future: Farmers’ perspectives and experiences

Small, diversified farms on California’s Central Coast have been dry farming for decades, allowing farmers to use water stored in soils from winter rains to grow tomatoes and other vegetables with little-to-no irrigation in summers without rainfall. As recent water shortages in California have forced a reckoning with the precariousness of the state’s water supply, policy groups and the general public have become increasingly interested in dry farming as a promising means of achieving water conservation goals. Academic research on this practice, however, has been scarce. Amid growing urgency to develop low-water agricultural systems in the state, we interviewed 10 Central Coast dry farmers, representing over half of the commercial dry farm operations in the region where this practice was developed, to collaboratively answer 2 central research questions: (1) What business and land stewardship practices characterize successful tomato dry farming on California’s Central Coast? (2) What is the potential for dry farming to expand beyond its current adoption while maintaining its identity as a diversified practice that benefits small-scale operations? We summarize farmers’ wisdom into 9 themes about current dry farm practice, its potential for expansion and future opportunities. We also synthesize farmer-stated environmental constraints on dry farm feasibility into a map of suitable areas in California. As we consider how dry farming might expand to new areas and operations, we highlight dry farming’s history as an agroecological alternative to industrial farming in the region and the need for careful policy planning to maintain that identity. In examining this California Central Coast dry farming system, we ask if and how it can enhance the viability of nonindustrial farming operations as the food system adapts to less water availability. Because policies that encourage dry farm expansion could change economic landscapes in which dry farming operates, we caution that well-intentioned policies could edge small growers out of dry farm markets if not carefully designed. At the same time, we emphasize the opportunity for dry farm tomato systems to model an agroecological transition toward water savings in California.

Conservation Agricultural Practices Increase Soil Fungal Diversity and Network Complexity in a 13-Year-Duration Conservation Agriculture System in the Loess Plateau of China

Agricultural practices can affect the diversity and community structure of soil fungi. This study investigates the impact of long-term agricultural practices on soil fungal diversity in the Loess Plateau of northwestern China. Different tillage practices have been implemented for 13 years, and their impact on soil fungi is assessed using high-throughput Illumina Sequencing. This study found a total of 2071 fungal Amplicon Sequence Variants (ASVs), and these were assigned to 25 different phyla, 372 families, and 496 genera. The fungal communities were dominated by Ascomycota (52.1%), followed by Zygomycota (14.3%) and Basidiomycota (9.0%). In general, the soil exhibited higher fungal community abundance, richness, and diversity in winter than in summer. Notably, no-tillage or stubble retention resulted in greater diversity than conventional tillage, with no-tillage combined with stubble retention resulting in the highest fungal richness, diversity, and network complexity in both summer and winter. These findings indicate that no-tillage with stubble retention is beneficial for biological soil components, which favors the establishment of abundant and diverse soil fungal communities in the Loess Plateau of China. The present study expands the knowledge of fungal communities in agro-ecosystems and the long-term ecosystem benefits of tillage practices.

Plant diversity drives positive microbial associations in the rhizosphere enhancing carbon use efficiency in agricultural soils

Expanding and intensifying agriculture has led to a loss of soil carbon. As agroecosystems cover over 40% of Earth’s land surface, they must be part of the solution put in action to mitigate climate change. Development of efficient management practices to maximize soil carbon retention is currently limited, in part, by a poor understanding of how plants, which input carbon to soil, and microbes, which determine its fate there, interact. Here we implement a diversity gradient by intercropping undersown species with barley in a large field trial, ranging from one to eight undersown species. We find that increasing plant diversity strengthens positive associations within the rhizosphere soil microbial community in relation to negative associations. These associations, in turn, enhance community carbon use efficiency. Jointly, our results highlight how increasing plant diversity in agriculture can be used as a management strategy to enhance carbon retention potential in agricultural soils.