Aging In Barrels Research Articles

Metabolomics of Red Wines Aged Traditionally, with Chips or Staves.

Traditionally and alternatively aged wines' odour activity values (OAVs) are investigated to differentiate and highlight the differences between the selected methods. An analysis of the volatile aroma compounds of wines derived from ageing in barrels, oak chips, and staves was performed using stir bar sorptive extraction chromatography-mass spectroscopy (SBSE-GC-MS). The results showed that alcohols, esters, and oak compounds were the main contributors to aroma, and their OAVs were higher in the stave samples after 3 months than in the samples from the other two systems of ageing. Furthermore, wines aged with staves have stronger fruity, spiced, and woody aromas, while samples aged in barrels present more chemistry-driven, floral, caramelly, and creamy aromas. The staves-medium plus toast (SMPT at 3 months > 225) and chips-medium plus toast (CMPT at 3 months > 170) showed the highest levels of aromatic series, suggesting that alternative systems provided more powerful aromas than traditional systems, such as barrels-medium plus toast (BMPT at 3 months > 150). A principal component analysis (PCA), orthogonal partial least squares (OPLS) analysis, and cluster analysis allowed for a clear differentiation to be made between red wines according to ageing systems and ageing times. The odour activity values fingerprint in winemaking is a feasible approach to characterise and distinguish wines. Moreover, OAVs provide important information on the effects of production methods on wine quality and aroma profile.

Comparison of Chromatic and Spectrophotometric Properties of White and Red Wines Produced in Galicia (Northwest Spain) by Applying PCA.

Wine is a complex matrix composed of numerous substances and color has an important influence on its quality and consumer acceptance. Color is affected by numerous factors such as pre-fermentation and fermentation operations, ageing, contact or addition of certain substances. In this study, different chromatic parameters were determined in 99 wines (58 red and 41 white) made from Galician (Northwest Spain) grape varieties. These parameters were obtained by using simple, rapid, and inexpensive spectrophotometric methodologies: color intensity, hue, total polyphenols content (Total Polyphenol Index TPI, Folin–Ciocalteu index, FCI), total anthocyans, total tannins, and color coordinates measured by the CIELab system. The influence of ageing in barrels (red wines) or using chips (white and red wines) on these parameters was also studied. A principal component analysis (PCA) was carried out to characterize the wines according to their chromatic characteristics. Application of PCA to the experimental data resulted in satisfactory classifications of studied white and red wines according to the cited enological practices.

Incorporating risk fairness concerns into wine futures under quality uncertainty

Quality uncertainty based on advance selling triggers risk aversion and risk fairness concerns by transaction parties, which have a great influence on their behaviours. From the perspective of social preference, risk fairness concerns refer to the disutility derived by a risk-averse party who cares about the risk difference between two parties, especially when one’s risk is disproportionately greater than another’s. In this paper, we develop an analytical framework to characterize the effect of consumers’ risk fairness concerns on both consumers’ and winemaker’s decisions in the context of wine futures (i.e., advance selling of wine before it is bottled). Neither the winemaker nor consumers know the real quality of the wine aging in barrels in advance. While the wine is aging in barrels, expert reviewers provide a barrel score by tasting the wine. The winemaker decides price and quantity according to the barrel score. Consumers make purchase decisions strategically in response to the winemaker’s decisions. We show how the winemaker should optimally respond to consumers’ risk fairness concerns and make optimal decisions. First, we find that with risk fairness concerns, the winemaker can induce consumers with low and high willingness-to-pay to purchase wine in two different periods. Second, consumers’ risk fairness concerns may have a positive effect on the winemaker and the optimal wine futures price may increase. Third, with capacity constraints, consumers’ risk fairness concerns always have a negative effect on the winemaker. Our findings emphasize the importance of incorporating risk fairness concerns into advance selling.

Identification, quantitation and sensory contribution of new C-glucosidic ellagitannin-derived spirit compounds

Ellagitannins are the main extractible phenolic compounds in oak wood. They can be extracted by eaux-de-vie aging in barrels but rapidly undergo chemical transformations, such as hydrolysis, reduction, oxidation, or even substitution reactions. Given gaps in knowledge about their composition in spirits, the goal of this work was to explore ellagitannin behavior during Cognac eaux-de-vie aging and search for new C-glucosidic ellagitannin-derived compounds. A purification protocol was followed to isolate the new formed compounds. UPLC-UV-Q-ToF and NMR spectroscopy were used to characterize a new C-glucosidic ellagitannin, named brandy tannin B. Two new forms of whiskey tannins were also isolated. The new compound, Brandy tannin B along with β-1-O-ethylvescalagin and β-1-O-ethylvescalin, and whiskey tannins were identified and quantified for the first time in Cognac eaux-de-vie. In addition, the organoleptic impact of brandy tannin B was evaluated. This work brings new insights into ellagitannin composition and their contribution to spirit quality.

Wood powders of different botanical origin as an alternative to barrel aging for red wine

Wood powders are produced in large quantity as by-product of barrel, staves and chips industry. Differently from larger particles (chips), the use of wood powders in winemaking is not admitted (Regulation (CE) n. 934/2019); however, it could represent a cheap and sustainable alternative for the accelerated aging of red wine. To evaluate their potential use in winemaking, a comparative study on the use of wood powders from oak, chestnut and acacia wood for the accelerated aging of red wine (cv. Aglianico) was conducted. This alternative aging was compared to the aging in wood barrels from the same botanical species. The wine aged in contact with powders underwent a quicker evolution of polyphenolic fraction. After 15 days of contact, the loss of total anthocyanins was higher than that observed after 6 months of aging in barrels (from 4 to 14% with respect to the corresponding kind of barrel). The amount of polymeric pigments tannins–anthocyanins–tannins in wines aged in contact with powders was higher respect to the wines aged in barrels (from 7 to 21% with respect to the corresponding kind of barrel), while the greatest loss of total tannins was detected in the oak barrels (28% less with respect to the control). There were several differences in wine phenolic acids due to wood botanical origin, with the clearest differences being between oak and the alternative wood species (chestnut and acacia). Also, there was a significant botanical effect on sensory profiles. Indeed, both among barrels and among powders, oak wood was the one that gave the strongest wood odor character. However, all the treatments with wood powders (oak, acacia and chestnut) preserved the fruity character of wine, conferring in the meanwhile non-dominant woody notes.

Autochthonous Oenococcus oeni Strain to Avoid Histamine Formation in Red Wines: A Study in Real Winemaking Conditions

The production of wines with low biogenic amine (BA) concentrations is a current concern in the wine sector, and strategies to avoid the formation of BAs during winemaking are of particular interest. The aim of this work was to determine the influence of selected autochthonous Oenococcus oeni lactic acid bacteria (LAB) on the BA content in red wines and their prevalence against the indigenous microbiota to avoid BA formation. Sixty-seven red wines were produced at industrial scale under real winemaking conditions for three consecutive vintages. For each wine, we determined LAB implantation and the BA concentrations at various stages of the winemaking process. The results clearly indicated that the use of selected O. oeni strains that are unable to produce BA, in combination with adapted biomass production, is a good strategy to control histamine production in wines. These practices, carried out over three consecutive years, were also observed to ensure the persistence of the selected autochthonous O. oeni strain (CECT 9749) against other indigenous microbiota in the entire winery. Furthermore, analysis of BA content during wine aging in barrels indicated that low BA content was maintained, resulting in healthier wines for the consumer.

Qualitative Factor-Based Comparison of NMR, Targeted and Untargeted GC-MS and LC-MS on the Metabolomic Profiles of Rioja and Priorat Red Wines.

Wine origin and ageing are two factors related to wine quality which in turn is associated to wine metabolome. Currently, new metabolomic techniques and proper statistics procedures allow accurate profiling of wine metabolome. Thus, the main goal was to evaluate different metabolomic methodologies on their ability to provide patterns on the wine metabolome based on selected factors, such as ageing of barrel-aged wine (factor time), prior usage of the barrels (factor barrel-type), and differences between wine ageing in barrels or glass bottles (factor bottled-wine). In the current study, we implement NMR, targeted and untargeted GC-MS and LC-MS metabolomic analytical techniques so as to gain insights into the volatile and nonvolatile wine metabolome composition of red wines from two cellars located in the only two Spanish Qualified Appellations of Origin; DOQ Priorat and DOCa Rioja regions. Overall, 95 differentially significant metabolites were identified facilitating the evaluation of the analytical methodologies performance and finding common trends of those metabolites depending on the considered factor. The results did not favor NMR as an effective technique on the current dataset whereas suggested LC-MS as an adequate technique for revealing differences based on the factor time, targeted GC-MS on the factor barrel-type, and untargeted GC-MS on the factor bottled-wine. Thus, a combination of different metabolomic techniques is necessary for a complete overview of the metabolome changes. These results ease the selection of the correct methodology depending on the specific factor investigated.

High-Throughput Sequencing Approach to Analyze the Effect of Aging Time and Barrel Usage on the Microbial Community Composition of Red Wines.

Wine aged in barrels or bottles is susceptible to alteration by microorganisms that affect the final product quality. However, our knowledge of the microbiota during aging and the factors modulating the microbial communities is still quite limited. The present work uses high-throughput sequencing (HTS) techniques to deal with the meta-taxonomic characterization of microbial consortia present in red wines along 12 months aging. The wines obtained from two different grape varieties were aged at two different cellars and compared based on time of wine aging in the barrels, previous usage of the barrels, and differences between wine aging in oak barrels or glass bottles. The aging in barrels did not significantly affect the microbial diversity but changed the structure and composition of fungal and bacterial populations. The main microorganisms driving these changes were the bacterial genera Acetobacter, Oenococcus, Lactobacillus, Gluconobacter, Lactococcus, and Komagataeibacter and the fungal genera Malassezia, Hanseniaspora, and Torulaspora. Our results showed that the oak barrels increased effect on the microbial diversity in comparison with the glass bottles, in which the microbial community was very similar to that of the wine introduced in the barrels at the beginning of the aging. Furthermore, wine in the bottles harbored higher proportion of Lactobacillus but lower proportion of Acetobacter. Finally, it seems that 1 year of previous usage of the barrels was not enough to induce significant changes in the diversity or composition of microbiota through aging compared with new barrels. This is the first meta-taxonomic study on microbial communities during wine aging and shows that the microorganism composition of barrel-aged wines was similar at both cellars. These results hint at the possibility of a common and stable microbiota after aging in the absence of exogenous alterations. Further corroborations on the current outcome would be valuable for the comparison and detection of microbial alterations during aging that could potentially prevent economic losses in the wine industry.

Wine Aging Technology: Fundamental Role of Wood Barrels.

The aging of wines is a process used to preserve wine but also to enhance its properties. It is a process of great interest, mainly because of the additional properties it adds to wines and because of its economic implications. Historically, barrels have been employed for centuries for preserving and aging wine due to their resistance and relative impermeability. In general terms, the wine aging process can be divided into two phases: oxidative and reductive aging. Oxidative aging traditionally takes place in barrels while reductive phase occurs in the bottle. During both processes, oxygen plays a fundamental role as well as other factors, for instance: temperature, light, bottle position, microbial growth or storage time. Likewise, during the aging process, a series of chemical reactions take place influencing the composition and organoleptic profile of wine. At this point, oxidative aging in barrels is a fundamental step. Barrels are directly involved in the produced changes on wine’s composition due to the transference of oxygen and phenolic and aromatic compounds from wood to wine. This way, barrels act as an active vessel capable of releasing compounds that affect and improve wine’s characteristics. Regarding, the importance of barrels during aging process, some attention must be given to the species most used in cooperage. These species are conventionally oak species, either French or American. However, other non-conventional species are currently being studied as possible wood sources for the production of wines, such as chestnut robinia or other oak species. In the last decades, new approaches have been developed for barrel aging to find new alternatives more suitable, affordable and feasible to sanitize the process, such as other materials different from wood or the use of wood chips, which is regulated since 2006 by the EU. However, even though some of them have shown promising data, barrels are currently the most used technology for the oxidative stage of table wines aging.

Effect of enological treatments on phenolic and sensory characteristics of red wine during aging: Micro-oxygenation, sulfur dioxide, iron with copper and gelatin fining

This work aimed to study long-term impact of micro-oxygenation and/or different aging treatments: (i) high SO2, (ii) high Fe with Cu and (iii) gelatin fining on Plavac mali red wine phenolic and in-mouthfeel sensory development in barrels and furthermore in bottles. Results showed that outcomes of micro-oxygenation strongly depend on aging treatments. High SO2 concentration during aging in barrels and bottles delayed typical phenolic changes and slightly contributed to astringency and lower color intensity, particularly in wine that was not micro-oxygenated. High metal concentrations and gelatin fining promoted intensive polymerization of proanthocyanins and a lower percentage of prodelphinidins after long-term aging in barrels. Also, flavan-3-ol and anthocyanins transformation rates in micro-oxygenated wines of both treatments significantly differed from their controls. Gelatin fining proved to be a very effective treatment for astringency reduction, particularly when combined with micro-oxygenation, but fined wines after long term aging in bottles showed lower color intensity.

Study of the role of oxygen in the evolution of red wine colour under different ageing conditions in barrels and bottles

Wine ageing in barrels is conditioned, among other factors, by the amount of oxygen received during this process, which thus impacts its final properties. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of oxygen on wine colour during ageing in barrels and bottles during different times. The use of barrels with different and known rates of oxygenation allows the effect of different oxygenation conditions throughout the process in barrels and its later evolution in bottles. A simulation process of ageing in bottles was used to study the impact of bottling in wines after differing ageing periods in barrels. The study of winés oxygen consumption capacity has been tied to colour modifications during ageing in barrels and bottles. Wines aged in barrels with a high oxygenation rate showed greater avidity to consume oxygen taking less time to consume that available, which is reflected in a greater increase in colour intensity.

The Effect of the Storage on the Content of the Malvidin-3-Glucoside in Red Wine

Abstract Anthocyanins are plant dyes responsible for the colour of red wine. Of these, malvidin-3-glucoside is the most significant member and its content was monitored in wines that were first left to age in oak barrels for 12 months, subsequently bottled and sealed with plastic/cork stoppers. The malvidin-3-glucoside content was also studied in the same wines that were bottled right away without aging in barrels. Analyses were conducted within the time spans of 3 to 30 months. The highest malvidin-3-glucoside concentrations were found in month 3 of the aging process, and they significantly decreased in month 6 and month 15 of storing. Between month 15 and month 30 of storing, the content of malvidin-3-glucoside basically remained unchanged. The results of the measurements show that to preserve higher malvidin-3-glucoside levels for longer periods of time, it is better to store wine in barrels rather than in bottles and when a bottle is used instead of a barrel, a plastic stopper is better than a cork stopper.

Accelerated aging of grape pomace vinegar by using additives combined with physical methods

Abstract(a) High‐quality vinegar is traditionally produced by aging in barrels, but this process is time‐consuming and costly. The aim of the present work was to evaluate the effectiveness of three novel aging techniques, including additives combined with ultrasound, with microwave, or with heating. (b) The contents of esters, amino acid nitrogen, and non‐volatile acids were evaluated. The effects of aging techniques on the color and aroma components of grape pomace vinegar were also studied. (c) It was found the ester contents significantly increased and more aroma components accumulated under three aging techniques, especially the additives combined with ultrasound. The total ester content of grape pomace vinegar treated by the additives combined with ultrasound increased by 42.2% compared with natural aging at 16°C for 180 days. (d) Therefore, the additives combined with ultrasound can be applied as a reliable technique to accelerate the aging process of grape pomace vinegar.Practical ApplicationGrape pomace is the main by‐product of the wine and grape juice industry, and contains rich nutrient and bioactive components. Conventional aging methods are time‐consuming and unable to maintain the original color and acidity of vinegar. The aging technique of additives (glucose, ethanol, and calcium chloride) combined with ultrasound can accelerate the aging of grape pomace vinegar and enhance the properties. This combined technique theoretically underlies the practical application of grape resources and supports the development of grape pomace vinegar with health care function.

Fingerprints of acacia aging treatments by barrels or chips based on volatile profile, sensorial properties, and multivariate analysis.

Despite the acceptance of the use of chips as an alternative enological practice to traditional barrels, there is substantial interest in looking for parameters that enable the aging technique to be identified. In the present study, the volatile compound composition and sensorial characteristics of wines aged with chips and barrels of acacia wood were monitored with the aim of finding fingerprints that could be used to discriminate between the two types of aging. Principal component analysis (PCA) calculated from chemical outputs permitted the two aging techniques to be distinguished. After 4 months of aging in barrels, concentrations of vanillin, ferulic acid, syringaldehyde, and furfural decreased considerably due to the higher oxidation produced by the acacia wood's porosity. This fact made it more difficult to discriminate between those wines aged in barrels for the longest times. On the other hand, PCA applied to sensorial data allowed a clear differentiation between wines aged in acacia barrels for longer periods and those macerated with chips, due to the notable presence of sensory attributes described as acacia wood, nutty, honeyed, and toasty. Chemical and sensorial data can be regarded as complementary methods to obtain fingerprints that enable differentiation between the two different aging techniques by means of acacia wood. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Identification, quantification, and sensory profile of esters and alcohols of a Mexican red Merlot wine comparing barrel ageing with wood chips, using a multivariable analysis

Using new technologies, such as wood chips, lead to carry out studies that involve sensory descriptors and the associated chemical compounds, in order to increase understanding of the reactions that occur in such a complicated process as ageing wine. Comparing the ageing process of Mexican red Merlot wine in barrels with wood chips, it was observed that aged wine with wood chips showed higher concentrations of esters and alcohols in a shorter time. The results are consistent with those obtained by sensory analysis, which also showed higher intensity of aromas on the nose, as well as roasted aromas being more prevalent in aged wine chips compared with wine aged in the barrel, which showed fruity aromas. Compared with ageing wine in barrels, using wood chips for the ageing process produced similar properties of red Merlot wine in less time. Practical applications The use of alternatives in wine ageing, such as wood chips, recently used in Mexican enology industry, which has demonstrated to obtain similar chemical results in comparison with traditional ageing in barrels. By knowing the sensory profile of wine aged with chips, it could be possible to know the consumer preferences. Besides, the results could help to achieve a technological transference using wood chips in wine ageing, which could be used in other enological beverages, such as tequila, whisky, and beer, among others.

The effect of fine lees as a reducing agent in sur lie wines, aged with various sulphur dioxide concentrations

During the ageing in barrels, the contact with the fine lees triggers several processes in wine. Lees has a reductive effect by absorbing dissolved oxygen and reducing the amount, which will remain in the wine. At present, minimizing the addition of sulphur dioxide is the trend in all viticultural areas. In this study, the effect of various sulphur dioxide levels was monitored in presence of the lees to determine which dose is appropriate to provide the protection of susceptible white wine against oxidation. Without SO2 protection, the rH and redox potential changed slightly, so the level of dissolved oxygen seemed to be controlled during the ageing period by the lees, though the antioxidant effect of lees in itself was not appropriate to protect the polyphenol content from chemical oxidation, which led to considerable browning. With the addition of a lower amount of SO2 — 40 mg l2, the lees is already able to protect the white wine samples in all aspects.

Variations in oxygen and ellagitannins, and organoleptic properties of red wine aged in French oak barrels classified by a near infrared system

During wine aging in barrels, antioxidant molecules from wood, such as ellagitannins, are solubilized and react with wine molecules and oxygen. However, their concentrations are highly variable. Oxygen is an important factor, as it plays a role in wine parameters and organoleptic perceptions.Five barrel modalities were used; three polyphenol indices (IP), classified using the NIRS procedure, and three grain qualities. Barrels were equipped with windows to measure the oxygen using luminescence technology. The ellagitannin concentrations in the wine and its organoleptic properties were monitored.Oxygen concentrations decreased quickly during the first 8days of aging and this phenomenon was significantly more marked in barrels with a higher IP and medium grain. The ellagitannin concentrations were believed to be correlated with wood classification and oxygen consumption. Furthermore, the organoleptic properties were significantly impacted, as the wine with the lowest ellagitannin level was described as less astringent, bitter, woody, and smoky/toasty.

Malolactic fermentation before or during wine aging in barrels

Malolactic fermentation (MLF) and aging in oak barrels are two oenological processes which modify the composition and sensory characteristics of the wines. However, there are few studies on the MLF in barrels.This work compares wines in which MLF is carried out in steel tanks and then aged in oak barrels, with wines in which MLF has been carried out in barrels.MLF occurs faster in barrels and while the fundamental structure of the wine is virtually identical, there is less color loss.Some groups of volatile compounds vary significantly depending on whether MLF takes place in tanks prior to aging or in the oak barrels themselves. It was shown that in this latter case, wines were obtained with slightly higher concentrations of methoxy-phenols and approximately double amount of whisky-lactones and furanic compounds.

Heat inactivation of wine spoilage yeast Dekkera bruxellensis by hot water treatment.

Cell suspensions of four Dekkera bruxellensis strains (CBS 2499, CBS 2797, CBS 4459 and CBS 4601) were subjected to heat treatment in deionized water at four different temperatures (55·0, 57·5, 60·0 and 62·5°C) to investigate their thermal resistance. The decimal reduction times at a specific temperature were calculated from the resulting inactivation curves: the D-values at 55·0°C ranged from 63 to 79·4s, at 57·5°C from 39·6 to 46·1s, at 60·0°C from 19·5 to 20·7s, at 62·5°C from 10·2 to 13·7s. The z-values were between 9·2 and 10·2°C, confirming that heat resistance is a strain-dependent character. A protocol for the sanitization of 225l casks by immersion in hot water was set up and applied to contaminated 3-year-old barrels. The heat penetration through the staves was evaluated for each investigated temperature by positioning a thermal probe at 8mm deep. A treatment at 60°C for an exposure time of 19min allowed to eliminate the yeast populations up to a log count reduction of 8. Brettanomyces/Dekkera bruxellensis is the main yeast involved in red wine spoilage that occurs during ageing in barrel, generating considerable economic losses. Current sanitization protocols, performed using different chemicals, are ineffective due to the porous nature of the wood. The thermal inactivation of D.bruxellensis cells by hot water treatment proves to be efficacious and easy to perform, provided that the holding time at the killing temperature takes into account the filling time of the vessel and the time for the heat penetration into the wood structure.

Factors influencing the aroma composition of Chardonnay wines.

Chardonnay is one of the oldest and most widely distributed wine grape cultivars and is of commercial importance for the world's wine-producing nations. It is an extremely flexible variety that has adapted to different regions with varied weather and soil characteristics. Somewhat uniquely among white wines, Chardonnay lends itself to a wide variety of production styles, which can be tailored to the target market. Techniques such as skin maceration, barrel and stainless steel fermentation, use of selected or indigenous yeasts, malolactic fermentation, and aging in barrels with or without lees are all applicable and lead to different compositional outcomes. A number of research papers have been published with a view to understanding Chardonnay composition and quality as well as the impact of different enological techniques on the final product. This review summarizes current knowledge, explaining the influence of viticultural and production techniques on aroma composition, and poses directions for further research into Chardonnay wines.