Age-matched Non-transgenic Littermates Research Articles

Sennoside A restrains TRAF6 level to modulate ferroptosis, inflammation and cognitive impairment in aging mice with Alzheimer's Disease

BackgroundAlzheimer's disease (AD) is a common neurodegenerative disease and a momentous cause of dementia in the elderly. Sennoside A (SA) is an anthraquinone compound and possesses decisive protective functions in various human diseases. The purpose of this research was to elucidate the protective effect of SA against AD and investigate its mechanism. MethodsMale APPswe/PS1dE9 (APP/PS1) transgenic mice with a C57BL/6J background were chosen as AD model. Age-matched nontransgenic littermates (C57BL/6 mice) were negative controls. SA's functions in AD in vivo were estimated by cognitive function analysis, Western blot, hematoxylin-eosin staining, TUNEL staining, Nissl staining, detection of Fe2+ levels, glutathione and malondialdehyde contents, and quantitative real-time PCR. Also, SA's functions in AD in LPS-induced BV2 cells were examined using Cell Counting Kit-8 assay, flow cytometry, quantitative real-time PCR, Western blot, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and analysis of reactive oxygen species levels. Meanwhile, SA's mechanisms in AD were assessed by several molecular experiments. ResultsFunctionally, SA mitigated cognitive function, hippocampal neuronal apoptosis, ferroptosis, oxidative stress, and inflammation in AD mice. Furthermore, SA reduced BV2 cell apoptosis, ferroptosis, oxidative stress, and inflammation induced by LPS. Rescue assay revealed that SA abolished the high expressions of TRAF6 and p-P65 (NF-κB pathway-related proteins) induced by AD, and this impact was reversed after TRAF6 overexpression. Conversely, this impact was further enhanced after TRAF6 knockdown. ConclusionsSA relieved ferroptosis, inflammation and cognitive impairment in aging mice with AD through decreasing TRAF6.

Early alterations in brain glucose metabolism and vascular function in a transgenic rat model of Alzheimer's disease.

Alteration in brain metabolism predates clinical onset of Alzheimer's Disease (AD). Realizing its potential as an early diagnostic marker, however, requires understanding how early AD metabolic dysregulation manifests on non-invasive brain imaging. We presently utilized magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy to map glucose and ketone metabolic profiles and image cerebrovascular function in a rat model of early stage AD - 9-month-old TgF344-AD (TgAD) rats - and their age-matched non-transgenic (nTg) littermates. Compared to the nTg rats, TgAD rats displayed attenuation in global cerebral and hippocampal vasoreactivity to hypercapnia, by 49±17% and 58±19%, respectively, while their functional hyperemia to somatosensory stimulation diminished by 69±5%. To assess brain glucose uptake, rats were fasted overnight and then challenged with an intravenous infusion of 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2DG). Compared to their non-transgenic littermates, TgAD rats exhibited 99±10% and 52±5% smaller glucose uptake in the entorhinal cortex and the hippocampus, respectively. Moreover, hippocampal glucose uptake reduction in male TgAD rats compared to the nTg was 54±36% greater than the reduction seen in female TgAD rats. TgAD rats also showed a 59±42% increase in total choline level in the hippocampus, suggesting increased membrane turnover. In combination with our earlier findings of impaired electrophysiological metrics at this early stage of AD pathology progression, our findings suggest that subtle neuronal function alterations that would be difficult to assess in a clinical population may be accompanied by MRI-detectable changes in brain glucose metabolism and cerebrovascular function.

Arterial spin labeling demonstrates preserved regional cerebral blood flow in the P301L mouse model of tauopathy

There is growing evidence for the vascular contribution to cognitive impairment and dementia in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and other neurodegenerative diseases. While perfusion deficits have been observed in patients with Alzheimer’s disease and tauopaties, little is known about the role of tau in vascular dysfunction. In the present study, regional cerebral blood (rCBF) was characterized in P301L mice with arterial spin labeling. No differences in rCBF in P301L mice compared to their age-matched non-transgenic littermates at mid (10–12 months of age) and advanced (19–21 months of age) disease stages. This was concomitant with preservation of cortical brain structure as assessed with structural T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging. These results show that hypoperfusion and neurodegeneration are not a phenotype of P301L mice. More studies are thus needed to understand the relationship of tau, neurodegeneration and vascular dysfunction and its modulators in AD and primary tauopathies.

SWI and phase imaging reveal intracranial calcifications in the P301L mouse model of human tauopathy

ObjectiveBrain calcifications are associated with several neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we describe the occurrence of intracranial calcifications as a new phenotype in transgenic P301L mice overexpressing four repeat tau, a model of human tauopathy.Materials and methodsThirty-six P301L mice (Thy1.2) and ten age-matched non-transgenic littermates of different ages were assessed. Gradient echo data were acquired in vivo and ex vivo at 7 T and 9.4 T for susceptibility-weighted imaging (SWI) and phase imaging. In addition, ex vivo micro-computed tomography (μCT) was performed. Histochemistry and immunohistochemistry were used to investigate the nature of the imaging lesions.ResultsSW images revealed regional hypointensities in the hippocampus, cortex, caudate nucleus, and thalamus of P301L mice, which in corresponding phase images indicated diamagnetic lesions. Concomitantly, µCT detected hyperdense lesions, though fewer lesions were observed compared to MRI. Diamagnetic susceptibility lesions in the hippocampus increased with age. The immunochemical staining of brain sections revealed osteocalcin-positive deposits. Furthermore, intra-neuronal and vessel-associated osteocalcin-containing nodules co-localized with phosphorylated-tau (AT8 and AT100) in the hippocampus, while vascular osteocalcin-containing nodules were detected in the thalamus in the absence of phosphorylated-tau deposition.DiscussionSWI and phase imaging sensitively detected intracranial calcifications in the P301L mouse model of human tauopathy.

Abstract 4347: Differentially expressed genes and molecular pathways in an autochthonous mouse prostate cancer model

Abstract Prostate cancer remains a major public health problem and second leading cause of cancer-related deaths in men in the United States. Despite widespread screening efforts and advancement in therapeutic regimens, incidence of prostate cancer remains steady in the past two decades. Although serum prostate-specific antigen (PSA) has been used as a screening test for prostate cancer for over two decades, the practice remains controversial. As a screening test for prostate cancer, PSA lacks sensitivity and specificity as early detection marker. Furthermore, screening may lead to unnecessary biopsies, over-detection, and overtreatment. There is a need for specific and sensitive biomarker(s) which can differentiate between cancer and non-cancer utilized for screening and early detection. The present study aims to comprehend the molecular pathways of prostate cancer which is essential for early detection and treatment. Dorso-lateral prostate from 20 week transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate (TRAMP) mice, which spontaneously develops prostate cancer and recapitulates human disease and age-matched non-transgenic littermates were utilized for microarray analysis. Network and pathway analyses were mapped using the Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA), and the database for annotation, visualization and integrated discovery. In total, 136 differentially expressed genes, including 32 downregulated genes and 104 upregulated genes were identified in the dorso-lateral prostate of TRAMP mice, compared to non-transgenic. A subset of differentially expressed genes were validated by QRT-PCR. Among these genes, 36% genes were connected to the nucleic acid binding especially ribosomal proteins which play important roles in protein synthesis, and is the most enriched pathway in the development of prostate cancer. Moreover, the results also suggest deregulation of the metabolic process and an imbalance between extracellular matrix components and adherens junction proteins could induce cancer progression. Taken together, the present study evaluated the underlying pathways and its connection to human cancer, which may further help to assess the risk of prostate cancer detection and its progression to identify potential targets of adjuvant treatment. Citation Format: Shiv Verma, Sanjeev Shukla, Mitali Pandey, Gregory T. MacLennan, Sanjay Gupta. Differentially expressed genes and molecular pathways in an autochthonous mouse prostate cancer model [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2019; 2019 Mar 29-Apr 3; Atlanta, GA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2019;79(13 Suppl):Abstract nr 4347.

Differentially Expressed Genes and Molecular Pathways in an Autochthonous Mouse Prostate Cancer Model.

Prostate cancer remains a major public health problem and the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths in men in the United States. The present study aims to understand the molecular pathway(s) of prostate cancer which is essential for early detection and treatment. Dorsolateral prostate from 20 week transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate (TRAMP) mice, which spontaneously develops prostate cancer and recapitulates human disease and age-matched non-transgenic littermates were utilized for microarray analysis. Mouse genome network and pathway analyses were mapped to the human genome using the Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) database for annotation, visualization, and integrated discovery. In total, 136 differentially expressed genes, including 32 downregulated genes and 104 upregulated genes were identified in the dorsolateral prostate of TRAMP, compared to non-transgenic mice. A subset of differentially expressed genes were validated by qRT-PCR. Alignment with human genome database identified 18 different classes of proteins, among these, 36% were connected to the nucleic acid binding, including ribosomal proteins, which play important role in protein synthesis—the most enriched pathway in the development of prostate cancer. Furthermore, the results suggest deregulation of signaling molecules (9%) and enzyme modulators (8%) affect various pathways. An imbalance in other protein classes, including transporter proteins (7%), hydrolases (6%), oxidoreductases, and cytoskeleton proteins (5%), contribute to cancer progression. Our study evaluated the underlying pathways and its connection to human prostate cancer, which may further help assess the risk of disease development and progression and identify potential targets for therapeutic intervention.

Stereological Investigation of the Effects of Treadmill Running Exercise on the Hippocampal Neurons in Middle-Aged APP/PS1 Transgenic Mice.

The risk of cognitive decline during Alzheimer's disease (AD) can be reduced if physical activity is maintained; however, the specific neural events underlying this beneficial effect are still uncertain. To quantitatively investigate the neural events underlying the effect of running exercise on middle-aged AD subjects, 12-month-old male APP/PS1 mice were randomly assigned to a control group or running group, and age-matched non-transgenic littermates were used as a wild-type group. AD running group mice were subjected to a treadmill running protocol (regular and moderate intensity) for four months. Spatial learning and memory abilities were assessed using the Morris water maze. Hippocampal amyloid plaques were observed using Thioflavin S staining and immunohistochemistry. Hippocampal volume, number of neurons, and number of newborn cells (BrdU+ cells) in the hippocampus were estimated using stereological techniques, and newborn neurons were observed using double-labelling immunofluorescence. Marked neuronal loss in both the CA1 field and dentate gyrus (DG) and deficits in both the neurogenesis and survival of new neurons in the DG of middle-aged APP/PS1 mice were observed. Running exercise could improve the spatial learning and memory abilities, reduce amyloid plaques in the hippocampi, delay neuronal loss, induce neurogenesis, and promote the survival of newborn neurons in the DG of middle-aged APP/PS1 mice. Exercise-induced protection of neurons and adult neurogenesis within the DG might be part of the important structural basis of the improved spatial learning and memory abilities observed in AD mice.

Running exercise protects against myelin breakdown in the absence of neurogenesis in the hippocampus of AD mice

Neurogenesis might influence oligodendrogenesis and selectively instruct myelination in the mammalian brain. Running exercise could induce neurogenesis and protect the myelin sheaths in the dentate gyrus of AD mice. It is unclear whether running exercise can protect myelin sheaths in the absence of neurogenesis in the hippocampus of AD mice. Six-month-old male APP/PS1 transgenic mice were randomly assigned to a control group (Tg control) or a running group (Tg runner), and age-matched non-transgenic littermates were used as a wild-type group (WT control). The Tg runner mice were subjected to a running protocol for four months. The behaviors of the mice in the three groups were then assessed using the Morris water maze, and related quantitative parameters of the myelin sheaths within the CA1 field were investigated using unbiased stereological and electron microscopy techniques. Learning and spatial memory performance, CA1 volume, the volumes of the myelinated fibers, and myelin sheaths in the CA1 field were all significantly worse in the Tg control mice than in the WT control mice. Learning and spatial memory performance, CA1 volume and the volume of the myelin sheaths in the CA1 field were all significantly greater in the Tg runner mice than in the Tg control mice. These results reveal demyelinating lesions in the CA1 field of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) mice and indicate that running exercise could protect against myelin sheath degeneration in the absence of neurogenesis, thereby reducing CA1 atrophy and delaying the onset and progression of AD.

Effects of exercise on capillaries in the white matter of transgenic AD mice.

Previous studies have shown that exercise can prevent white matter atrophy in APP/PS1 transgenic Alzheimer’s disease (AD) mice. However, the mechanism of this protective effect remains unknown. To further understand this issue, we investigated the effects of exercise on the blood supply of white matter in transgenic AD mice. Six-month-old male APP/PS1 mice were randomly divided into a control group and a running group, and age-matched non-transgenic littermates were used as a wild-type control group. Mice in the running group ran on a treadmill at low intensity for four months. Then, spatial learning and memory abilities, white matter and white matter capillaries were examined in all mice. The 10-month-old AD mice exhibited deficits in cognitive function, and 4 months of exercise improved these deficits. The white matter volume and the total length, total volume and total surface area of the white matter capillaries were decreased in the 10-month-old AD mice, and 4 months of exercise dramatically delayed the changes in these parameters in the AD mice. Our results demonstrate that even low-intensity running exercise can improve spatial learning and memory abilities, delay white matter atrophy and protect white matter capillaries in early-stage AD mice. Protecting capillaries might be an important structural basis for the exercise-induced protection of the structural integrity of white matter in AD.

Lysosomal dysfunction in the brain of a mouse model with intraneuronal accumulation of carboxyl terminal fragments of the amyloid precursor protein.

Recent data suggest that intraneuronal accumulation of metabolites of the amyloid β precursor protein (APP) is neurotoxic. We observed that transgenic mice overexpressing in neurons a human APP gene harboring the APPE693Q (Dutch) mutation have intraneuronal lysosomal accumulation of APP carboxyl-terminal fragments (APP-CTFs) and oligomeric amyloid β (oAβ) but no histological evidence of amyloid deposition. Morphometric quantification using the lysosomal marker protein 2 (LAMP-2) immunolabeling showed higher neuronal lysosomal counts in brain neurons of 12 months old APPE693Q as compared to age-matched non-transgenic littermates, and Western blots showed increased lysosomal proteins including LAMP-2, cathepsin D and LC3. At 24 months of age, these mice also exhibited an accumulation of α-synuclein in the brain, along with increased conversion of LC3-I to LC3-II, an autophagosomal/autolysosomal marker. In addition to lysosomal changes at 12 months of age, these mice developed cholinergic neuronal loss in the basal forebrain, GABAergic neuronal loss in the cortex, hippocampus and basal forebrain, and gliosis and microgliosis in the hippocampus. These findings suggest a role for the intraneuronal accumulation of oAβ and APP-CTFs and resultant lysosomal pathology at early stages of Alzheimer’s disease-related pathology.

Magnetic Resonance Q Mapping Reveals a Decrease in Microvessel Density in the arcAβ Mouse Model of Cerebral Amyloidosis.

Alterations in density and morphology of the cerebral microvasculature have been reported to occur in Alzheimer's disease patients and animal models of the disease. In this study we compared magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) techniques for their utility to detect age-dependent changes of the cerebral vasculature in the arcAβ mouse model of cerebral amyloidosis. Dynamic susceptibility contrast (DSC)-MRI was performed by tracking the passage of a superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticle in the brain with dynamic gradient echo planar imaging (EPI). From this measurements relative cerebral blood volume [rCBV(DSC)] and relative cerebral blood flow (rCBF) were estimated. For the same animal maps of the relaxation shift index Q were computed from high resolution gradient echo and spin echo data that were acquired before and after superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) nanoparticle injection. Q-values were used to derive estimates of microvessel density. The change in the relaxation rates obtained from pre- and post-contrast gradient echo data was used for the alternative determination of rCBV [rCBV()]. Linear mixed effects modeling found no significant association between rCBV(DSC), rCBV(), rCBF, and Q with genotype in 13-month old mice [compared to age-matched non-transgenic littermates (NTLs)] for any of the evaluated brain regions. In 24-month old mice there was a significant association for rCBV(DSC) with genotype in the cerebral cortex, and for rCBV() in the cerebral cortex and cerebellum. For rCBF there was a significant association in the cerebellum but not in other brain regions. Q-values in the olfactory bulb, cerebral cortex, striatum, hippocampus, and cerebellum in 24-month old mice were significantly associated with genotype. In those regions Q-values were reduced between 11 and 26% in arcAβ mice compared to age-matched NTLs. Vessel staining with CD31 immunohistochemistry confirmed a reduction of microvessel density in the old arcAβ mice. We further demonstrated a region-specific association between parenchymal and vascular deposition of β-amyloid and decreased vascular density, without a correlation with the amount of Aβ deposition. We found that Q mapping was more suitable than the hemodynamic read-outs to detect amyloid-related degeneration of the cerebral microvasculature.

MTHFSD and DDX58 are novel RNA-binding proteins abnormally regulated in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Tar DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43) is an RNA-binding protein normally localized to the nucleus of cells, where it elicits functions related to RNA metabolism such as transcriptional regulation and alternative splicing. In amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, TDP-43 is mislocalized from the nucleus to the cytoplasm of diseased motor neurons, forming ubiquitinated inclusions. Although mutations in the gene encoding TDP-43, TARDBP, are found in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, these are rare. However, TDP-43 pathology is common to over 95% of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis cases, suggesting that abnormalities of TDP-43 play an active role in disease pathogenesis. It is our hypothesis that a loss of TDP-43 from the nucleus of affected motor neurons in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis will lead to changes in RNA processing and expression. Identifying these changes could uncover molecular pathways that underpin motor neuron degeneration. Here we have used translating ribosome affinity purification coupled with microarray analysis to identify the mRNAs being actively translated in motor neurons of mutant TDP-43(A315T) mice compared to age-matched non-transgenic littermates. No significant changes were found at 5 months (presymptomatic) of age, but at 10 months (symptomatic) the translational profile revealed significant changes in genes involved in RNA metabolic process, immune response and cell cycle regulation. Of 28 differentially expressed genes, seven had a ≥ 2-fold change; four were validated by immunofluorescence labelling of motor neurons in TDP-43(A315T) mice, and two of these were confirmed by immunohistochemistry in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis cases. Both of these identified genes, DDX58 and MTHFSD, are RNA-binding proteins, and we show that TDP-43 binds to their respective mRNAs and we identify MTHFSD as a novel component of stress granules. This discovery-based approach has for the first time revealed translational changes in motor neurons of a TDP-43 mouse model, identifying DDX58 and MTHFSD as two TDP-43 targets that are misregulated in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

In vivo SPECT imaging of amyloid-β deposition with radioiodinated imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine derivative DRM106 in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.

Noninvasive determination of amyloid-β peptide (Aβ) deposition has important significance for early diagnosis and medical intervention for Alzheimer's disease (AD). In the present study, we investigated the availability of radiolabeled DRM106 ((123/125)I-DRM106 [6-iodo-2-[4-(1H-3-pyrazolyl)phenyl]imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine]), a compound with sufficient affinity for the synthesis of human Aβ fibrils and satisfactory metabolic stability, as a SPECT ligand in living brains. The sensitivity of (125)I-DRM106 for detecting Aβ deposition was compared with that of (125)I-IMPY (2-(4'-dimethylaminophenyl)-6-iodo-imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine), a well-known amyloid SPECT ligand, by ex vivo autoradiographic analyses in 18-mo-old amyloid precursor protein transgenic mice. To verify the sensitivity and quantitation of radiolabeled DRM106 for in vivo imaging, we compared the detectability of Aβ plaques with (123)I-DRM106 and a well-known amyloid PET agent, (11)C-labeled Pittsburgh compound B ((11)C-PiB), in 29-mo-old transgenic mice and age-matched nontransgenic littermates. Additionally, we compared the binding characteristics of (125)I-DRM106 with those of (11)C-PiB and (11)C-PBB3, which selectively bind to Aβ plaques and preferentially to tau aggregates, respectively, in postmortem AD brain sections. Ex vivo autoradiographic analysis showed that measurement with (125)I-DRM106 has a higher sensitivity for detecting Aβ accumulation than with (125)I-IMPY in transgenic mice. SPECT imaging with (123)I-DRM106 also successfully detected Aβ deposition in living aged transgenic mice and showed strong correlation (R = 0.95, P < 0.01) in quantitative analysis for Aβ plaque detection by PET imaging with (11)C-PiB, implying that sensitivity and quantitation of SPECT imaging with (123)I-DRM106 are almost as good as (11)C-PiB PET for the detectability of Aβ deposition. Further, the addition of nonradiolabeled DRM106 fully blocked the binding of (125)I-DRM106 and (11)C-PiB, but not (11)C-PBB3, to AD brain sections, and (125)I-DRM106 showed a lower binding ratio of the diffuse plaque-rich lateral temporal cortex to the dense-cored/neuritic plaque-rich hippocampal CA1 area, compared with (11)C-PiB. All of these data demonstrated the high potential of (123)I-DRM106 for amyloid imaging in preclinical and clinical application, and it might more preferentially detect dense-cored/neuritic amyloid deposition, which is expected to be closely associated with neuropathologic changes of AD.

Nigrostriatal dynein changes in A53T alpha-synuclein transgenic mice

The accumulation of misfolded a-synuclein is mechanistically linked to neurodegeneration in Parkinson’s disease (PD) and other alpha-synucleinopathies. However, how alpha-synuclein causes neurodegeneration is unresolved. Several studies have supported the involvement of dynein, the major motor for retrograde axonal transport in alpha-synuclein-dependent neurodegeneration, especially in the nigrostriatal system. Therefore, we examined the nigrostriatal dyneins in transgenic mice that overexpress human A53T alpha-synuclein and recapitulate key features of a PD-like neuronal synucleinopathy. Age-matched nontransgenic littermates were used as controls. The results demonstrated that the protein level of dynein was decreased in the striatum, whereas it was elevated in the substantia nigra. Double immunostaining results revealed that the reduction in dynein level was associated with aggregation of A53T a-synuclein in the striatum. Furthermore, we performed a quantitative analysis of motor behaviors in A53T alpha-synuclein transgenic mice and controls using a modified open field test. We demonstrated that the protein level of dynein in the striatum was significantly correlated with the motor behaviors. Together, our data indicate that dynein changes in the nigrostriatal system of A53T alpha-synuclein transgenic mice may contribute to their severe movement disorder.

Nigrostriatal dynein changes in A53T alpha-synuclein transgenic mice.

The accumulation of misfolded a-synuclein is mechanistically linked to neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease (PD) and other alpha-synucleinopathies. However, how alpha-synuclein causes neurodegeneration is unresolved. Several studies have supported the involvement of dynein, the major motor for retrograde axonal transport in alpha-synuclein-dependent neurodegeneration, especially in the nigrostriatal system. Therefore, we examined the nigrostriatal dyneins in transgenic mice that overexpress human A53T alpha-synuclein and recapitulate key features of a PD-like neuronal synucleinopathy. Age-matched nontransgenic littermates were used as controls. The results demonstrated that the protein level of dynein was decreased in the striatum, whereas it was elevated in the substantia nigra. Double immunostaining results revealed that the reduction in dynein level was associated with aggregation of A53T a-synuclein in the striatum. Furthermore, we performed a quantitative analysis of motor behaviors in A53T alpha-synuclein transgenic mice and controls using a modified open field test. We demonstrated that the protein level of dynein in the striatum was significantly correlated with the motor behaviors. Together, our data indicate that dynein changes in the nigrostriatal system of A53T alpha-synuclein transgenic mice may contribute to their severe movement disorder.

Proteomic analysis of the brain tissues from a transgenic mouse model of amyloid β oligomers

Amyloid β (Aβ) oligomers are presumed to be one of the causes of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Previously, we identified the E693Δ mutation in amyloid precursor protein (APP) in patients with AD who displayed almost no signals of amyloid plaques in amyloid imaging. We generated APP-transgenic mice expressing the E693Δ mutation and found that they possessed abundant Aβ oligomers from 8months of age but no amyloid plaques even at 24months of age, indicating that these mice are a good model to study pathological effects of Aβ oligomers. To elucidate whether Aβ oligomers affect proteome levels in the brain, we examined the proteins and phosphoproteins for which levels were altered in 12-month-old APPE693Δ-transgenic mice compared with age-matched non-transgenic littermates. By two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) followed by staining with SYPRO Ruby and Pro-Q Diamond and subsequent mass spectrometry techniques, we identified 17 proteins and 3 phosphoproteins to be significantly changed in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex of APPE693Δ-transgenic mice. Coactosin like-protein, SH3 domain-bind glutamic acid-rich-like protein 3 and astrocytic phosphoprotein PEA-15 isoform 2 were decreased to levels less than 0.6 times those of non-transgenic littermates, whereas dynamin, profilin-2, vacuolar adenosine triphosphatase and creatine kinase B were increased to levels more than 1.5 times those of non-transgenic littermates. Furthermore, 2DE Western Blotting validated the changed levels of dynamin, dihydropyrimidinase-related protein 2 (Dpysl2), and coactosin in APPE693Δ-transgenic mice. Glyoxalase and isocitrate dehydrogenase were increased to levels more than 1.5 times those of non-transgenic littermates. The identified proteins could be classified into several groups that are involved in regulation of different cellular functions, such as cytoskeletal and their interacting proteins, energy metabolism, synaptic component, and vesicle transport and recycling. These findings indicate that Aβ oligomers altered the levels of some proteins and phosphoproteins in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex, which could illuminate novel therapeutic avenues for the treatment of AD.

Cyclic intensive light exposure induces retinal lesions similar to age-related macular degeneration in APPswe/PS1 bigenic mice

BackgroundIntensive light exposure and beta-amyloid (Aβ) aggregates have been known as a risk factor for macular degeneration and an important component in the pathologic drusen structure involved in this disorder, respectively. However, it is unknown whether Aβ deposition mediates or exacerbates light exposure-induced pathogenesis of macular degeneration. Several studies including the one from us already showed accumulation of Aβ deposits in the retina in Alzheimer's transgenic mice. Using histopathological analysis combined with electroretinographic functional assessment, we investigated the effects of cyclic intensive light exposure (CILE) on the architecture of retina and related function in the APPswe/PS1bigenic mouse.ResultsHistopathological analysis has found significant loss of outer nuclear layer/photoreceptor outer segment and outer plexiform layer along with abnormal hypo- and hyper-pigmentation in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), remarkable choroidal neovascularization (CNV), and exaggerated neuroinflammatory responses in the outer retina of APPswe/PS1 bigenic mice following cyclic intensive light exposure (CILE), whereas controls remained little change contrasted with age-matched non-transgenic littermates. CILE-induced degenerative changes in RPE are further confirmed by transmission electron microcopy and manifest as formation of basal laminar deposits, irregular thickening of Bruch's membrane (BrM), deposition of outer collagenous layer (OCL) in the subretinal space, and vacuolation in the RPE. Immunofluorescence microscopy reveals drusenoid Aβ deposits in RPE as well as neovessels attached which are associated with disruption of RPE integrity and provoked neuroinflammatory response as indicated by markedly increased retinal infiltration of microglia. Moreover, both immunohistochemistry and Western blots detect an induction of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in RPE, which corroborates increased CNV in the outer retina in the bigenic mice challenged by CILE.ConclusionsOur findings demonstrate that degenerative changes in the outer retina in the APPswe/PS1 bigenic mouse induced by CILE are consistent with these in AMD. These results suggest that an Alzheimer's transgenic animal model with accumulation of Aβ deposits might be an alternative animal model for AMD, if combined with other confounding factors such as intensive light exposure for AMD.

Immunomodulation of Memory-Impairing Protein Tau in Alzheimer’s Disease

Background: Neurodegeneration induced by misfolded tau protein and neuroinflammation represent the major hallmarks of human tauopathies including Alzheimer’s disease (AD). While tau driven neurodegeneration significantly correlates with disease progression, inflammation is considered to be an important factor regulating the resistance or susceptibility to AD. The emerging evidence suggests that the genes related to immunity can influence neurodegeneration. Objective: In order to determine the role of MHC class II in the tau neurofibrillary cascade, we generated and used transgenic lines expressing human truncated tau protein in either spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) or Wistar-Kyoto rat (WKY) genetic background. Methods: Brains of WKY and SHR transgenic rats and their age-matched nontransgenic littermates were examined by immunohistochemistry and RT-PCR. Results: Our results clearly showed that genetic background determined the inflammatory pattern (MHC class II) induced by tau neurodegenerative cascade in the transgenic rats expressing human misfolded truncated tau. Conclusion: Using two transgenic rat lines with different immunogenetic backgrounds, expressing the same transgene, we conclude that genetic background is a potent modifier of the type of the immune response induced by tau neurodegeneration.

Functional Changes in Neocortical Activity in Huntington's Disease Model Mice: An in vivo Intracellular Study

Studies of animal models of Huntington's disease (HD) have revealed that neocortical and neostriatal neurons of these animals in vitro exhibit a number of morphological and physiological changes, including increased input resistance and changes in neocortical synaptic inputs. We measured the functional effects of polyglutamate accumulation in neocortical neurons in R6/2 mice (8–14 weeks of age) and their age-matched non-transgenic littermates using in vivo intracellular recordings. All neurons showed spontaneous membrane potential fluctuations. The current/voltage and the firing properties of the HD neocortical neurons were significantly altered, especially in the physiologically relevant current range around and below threshold. As a result, membrane potential transitions from the Down state to Up state were evoked with smaller currents in HD neocortical neurons than in controls. The excitation-to-frequency curves of the HD mice were significantly steeper than those of controls, indicating a smaller input–output dynamic range for these neurons. Increased likelihood of Down to Up state transitions could cause pathological recruitment of corticostriatal assemblies by increasing correlated neuronal activity. We measured coherence of the in vivo intracellular recordings with simultaneously recorded electrocorticograms. We found that the peak of the coherence at <5 Hz was significantly smaller in the HD animals, indicating that the amount of coherence in the state transitions of single neurons is less correlated with global activity than non-transgenic controls. We propose that decreased correlation of neocortical inputs may be a major physiological cause underlying the errors in sensorimotor pattern generation in HD.

Genetic background modifies neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation driven by misfolded human tau protein in rat model of tauopathy: implication for immunomodulatory approach to Alzheimer's disease

BackgroundNumerous epidemiological studies demonstrate that genetic background modifies the onset and the progression of Alzheimer's disease and related neurodegenerative disorders. The efficacious influence of genetic background on the disease pathway of amyloid beta has been meticulously described in rodent models. Since the impact of genetic modifiers on the neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory cascade induced by misfolded tau protein is yet to be elucidated, we have addressed the issue by using transgenic lines expressing the same human truncated tau protein in either spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) or Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) genetic background.MethodsBrains of WKY and SHR transgenic rats in the terminal stage of phenotype and their age-matched non-transgenic littermates were examined by means of immunohistochemistry and unbiased stereology. Basic measures of tau-induced neurodegeneration (load of neurofibrillary tangles) and neuroinflammation (number of Iba1-positive microglia, their activated morphology, and numbers of microglia immunoreactive for MHCII and astrocytes immunoreactive for GFAP) were quantified with an optical fractionator in brain areas affected by neurofibrillary pathology (pons, medulla oblongata). The stereological data were evaluated using two-way ANOVA and Student's t-test.ResultsTau neurodegeneration (neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), axonopathy) and neuroinflammation (microgliosis, astrocytosis) appeared in both WKY and SHR transgenic rats. Although identical levels of transgene expression in both lines were present, terminally-staged WKY transgenic rats displayed significantly lower final NFT loads than their SHR transgenic counterparts. Interestingly, microglial responses showed a striking difference between transgenic lines. Only 1.6% of microglia in SHR transgenic rats expressed MHCII in spite of having a robust phagocytic phenotype, whereas in WKY transgenic rats, 23.2% of microglia expressed MHCII despite displaying a considerably lower extent of transformation into phagocytic phenotype.ConclusionsThese results show that the immune response represents a pivotal and genetically variable modifying factor that is able to influence vulnerability to neurodegeneration. Therefore, targeted immunomodulation could represent a prospective therapeutic approach to Alzheimer's disease.