Age-graded Theory Research Articles

A Developmental and Life-Course Approach to Further Understanding of the Nature and Causes of Intimate Partner Violence and Femicide

The current paper explores the theoretical and empirical capacity of developmental and life-course criminology (DLC) to further our understanding of non-lethal intimate partner violence (IPV) and femicide. Drawing on Sampson and Laub’s age-graded theory and Moffitt’s dual taxonomy, the paper delves into empirical research that has identified and examined the overlap between general offending and IPV, highlighting how these DLC theoretical frameworks could provide insight into non-lethal IPV and femicide. We also outline the ways in which these DLC perspectives are challenged to fully address the gendered nature of IPV and less able to provide an empirical and theoretical understanding of the role of power and control by men over their women partners. We then place these frameworks within the global impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on gender-based violence, including femicide. While the COVID-19 lockdowns increased vulnerability to IPV and increased homicide in the United States, the expected rise in femicide did not materialize—at least within the United States, prompting questions about the extent to which existing criminological theories are able to provide a framework for these types of crime trends during unprecedented events. We examine the way non-lethal and lethal IPV are shaped by different factors as outlined in Moffitt’s dual taxonomy. The pandemic for example did not create increased psychopathy (i.e., affective and personality disorders) associated with the risk for femicide, but the COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent lockdowns did create increased economic and family stressors, which placed many at-risk women and children in further social isolation, and reduced access to victim services. We conclude a need for further theoretical development surrounding femicide, integrating developmental and life-course perspectives, thereby emphasizing the need for refined frameworks to address the intricate dynamics of violence against women globally.

Desistance and Recidivism Among Former Prisoners in Malaysia: A Proposed Model According to the Age-Graded Theory

The Age-Graded Theory suggests that the causes of premature delinquency and adult deviant behaviour are not the exclusive outcomes of individual characteristics since a particular incident in life can affect individuals, perpetuating their persistency in committing offences. This paper demonstrates that constructive events in life can successfully prevent former prisoners from being reinvolved in crime, whilst adverse life happenings can derail former prisoners from staying on the right path—a phenomenon known as recidivism. Adopting the phenomenology research paradigm, the findings of this paper are based on the empirical data from a Malaysian case study involving 19 former prisoners with criminal records of various offences. The findings of this study reveal that Age-Graded life-course events are essential predictors of former prisoner criminal behaviour, rendering the theory valuable, especially when it comes to modelling social reintegration strategies and interventions for former prisoners.

Developmental and Life-Course Criminology Theory: A Literature Review

The paper reviews certain criminological life course theories. The theory of developmental pathways is based on specific trajectories that gradually, during development, lead to criminal behaviour. The age-graded theory of informal social control explains the influence of social institutions during the life course on the occurrence of criminal behaviour. The interactional theory finds that delinquency has its roots in weak social ties and delinquent networks; it is part of reciprocal continuous relationships during the life course. The dual taxonomy theory explains the continuity and changes in criminal careers and identifies two types of perpetrators. The integrative multi-layered control theory explains the development of criminal behaviour, events and crime rates through the integration of classical criminological theories. The situational action theory states that during development criminal behaviour is part of moral action. The developmental propensity theory considers the correlates of genetics and environment to delinquent behaviour. The integrated cognitive antisocial potential theory incorporates traditional criminological theories aiming to explain the unique potential for antisocial action that can lead to criminal behaviour during development.

Self-equity as a trustworthiness measure: The relationship among self-equity and security clearance eligibility adjudications in US Army recruits

ABSTRACT The United States government’s clearance adjudication process examines past behavior to determine soldier eligibility for a security clearance. For young recruits with a short-documented history, however, little information is available. While informal social controls generally associate with criminal desistance, desistance speaks little about those who have yet to offend. This work extends informal social control theory to better understand military clearance eligibility adjudication outcomes as measured in terms of a self-equity construct. This analysis looks at a twelve-year cohort of US Army recruits who received clearance eligibility adjudication within the first five years of service, as recorded in military archival data in the Person-event Data Environment (PDE) database. Laub, Rowan, & Sampson’s (2018) age-graded theory of informal social control is tested to estimate models, capturing the self-equity effects of moral waiver, qualification-test percentiles, service time, rank, education, and childbirth–marriage interaction. The results demonstrate that self-equity substantively relates to security clearance eligibility adjudication outcomes. These findings carry policy implications for the creation of an objective trustworthiness measure in the absence of reliable documented history.

The Life Course of Methamphetamine Users in Aotearoa/New Zealand: The Role of Romantic Relationships and Parenting

This paper seeks to improve understanding of how romantic relationships and parenting influence illegal drug using trajectories, and, conversely, how illegal drug use impacts on romantic relationships and parenting. This analysis is part of the first life course-based qualitative study of former methamphetamine users in Aotearoa/New Zealand. Laub and Sampson’s “age-graded theory of informal social control” is applied to data from in-depth semi-structured interviews with 35 former methamphetamine users. Analysis shows that support for the theory is relatively weak in regards to relationships (especially females), yet strong for parenting. Compared to romantic relationships, parenting is less likely to increase illegal drug use and much more likely to decrease illegal drug use. Methamphetamine exerted the most negative influence on romantic relationships and parenting. Additionally, female interviewees encountered much greater adversity in their relationships and parenting. Overall, the male partner was more likely to influence increased drug use among the female partner, whereas the female partner was more likely to influence decreased drug use among the male partner.

Age-Graded Informal Social Control and Motivations Among Street Sex Buyers

Sex buyers are often viewed as a single category of offenders; however, they are diverse with regard to their motivations for seeking out commercial sex. Past research also suggests that purchasing sex does not follow the age-crime curve and that men’s motivations fluctuate according to changes in informal social bonds to important social institutions. This study thus used Laub and Sampson’s 87 revised age-graded theory of informal social control as a theoretical guide for the exploration of the relationship between age, informal social control, and men’s motivations for purchasing sex. A series of ordinary least squares regressions examined if age, marriage, deviant peer association, and employment characteristics were related to the five most common motivations to purchase sex: power and control, the diversification of sexual interests, the “dirty whore” fantasy, viewing sex as a commodity, and perceived romantic inadequacy. Age was negatively associated with being motivated by power and control, but positively related to viewing sex as a commodity. Being married was positively related to the diversification of sexual interests. Deviant peer association increased scores on the perceived romantic inadequacy scale, however, reduced them on the “dirty whore” fantasy scale. Having a full-time white-collar job was negatively related to both power and control and perceived romantic inadequacy; however, white-collar employment increased scores on the diversification of sexual interests and sex as a commodity scales. Age and informal social control have differential impacts on men’s motivations for purchasing sex via the outdoor sex trade.

Exploring the Relationship Between Lasting, Quality Social Bonds and Intermittency in Offending

The current study expands the existing understanding of intermittency in offending by applying the age-graded theory of informal social control to further conceptualize and theorize intermittency. Using the Pathways to Desistance data, random effects models are used to determine whether within-individual changes and between-individual differences in the duration and quality of school, employment, and marriage/engagement are related to the time between arrests. Bonds of greater duration to school, employment, and marriage are related to longer average gaps between arrests. Transitioning into low wage employment is related to shorter periods of intermittency in the later years. On average, lower quality employment and marriages during this time period are also tied to shorter time between arrests as opposed to high quality employment and marriages.

“About Face” for Delinquent Youth: Military Service as a Turning Point Across the Life Course

The current study explores how military service can influence later criminal offending, as informed by the age-graded theory of informal social control. Specifically, the current study is testing whether military service in adulthood acts as a turning point for delinquent youths. We build off previous literature by implementing a research design that addresses important gaps in this literature, such as a more recent military population and comparing self-reported criminal offending to police contacts. Both include overall crime measures and specific crime categories. This study also examines differences in self-reported offending and arrests for different the types of service within the military. The current study uses a nationally representative sample of delinquent youths from the Add Health. We employ propensity score matching and logistic regression to test the effects of military service on self-reported criminal offending and arrests. Our results suggest that military service reduces future overall self-reported criminal offending for delinquent youths. However, the only specific category of crime influenced is drug arrests. Additionally, we find that those in the military reserves are substantially more likely to engage in drug crime than those with active duty service. The findings of the current study not only address many gaps in the current literature but also postulate a reason for the mixed findings in the literature. In addition, the results indicate that the criminal justice system may treat military servicemen and servicewomen differently than those with no military service on minor forms of crime. Limitations and policy implications are also discussed.

Social context, family process, and Turkish boys’ pathway to incarceration: an application of the age-graded theory of informal social control

ABSTRACTAlthough the juvenile delinquency problem in Turkey has become increasingly visible in the last decade, existing research on Turkish youth convicted of delinquency is still in its early stages. The purpose of this study was to apply the age-graded theory of informal social control that was developed by Sampson and Laub to the Turkish context, and to explore the role of family processes that lead young men to prison. Data are from in-depth interviews with 30 convicted juveniles in a juvenile prison. Data analysis highlighted the negative effects of specific family processes such as youth’s lack of attachment to their parents, which may result from harsh or erratic methods of discipline, and low levels of parental monitoring. The findings suggest that it is essential to implement family-oriented interventions to prevent and control serious delinquency.

A turning point for problematic alcohol users: can relationship adjustment predict desistance?

Problematic alcohol use (PAU) presents a major burden on health worldwide. Sampson and Laub’s Age-Graded Theory of Informal Social Control provides a unique lens through which to investigate desistance from PAU. This study explored the potential of relationship adjustment to act as a turning point, promoting desistance from PAU across the lifespan. Seventy-three participants (58 females, 15 males) who had previously experienced a period of PAU responded to an anonymous online survey. Contrary to the hypothesis, results showed that relationship adjustment did not act as a turning point predicting desistance from PAU across the lifespan in this sample. However, further analyses revealed that relationship adjustment did predict desistance for those aged 25 years and under. The findings provide partial support for the use of Sampson and Laub’s theory in the alcohol use literature, and highlight the importance of relationship adjustment in the drinking behaviors of youth. Replication and further research are needed. Implications for therapeutic practices, health promotion, and theoretical frameworks are discussed.

Turning Points and the Future of Life-Course Criminology

In 1986, the National Research Council published a two-volume report, Criminal Careers and “ Career Criminals.” This work generated fierce debates central to the field of criminology and pitted some of the biggest names in the business against one another. In this paper, we consider the last 30 years and ask whether the report was an intellectual turning point. Our answer is that while the report did change the methodological direction of criminology, it lacked a theoretical explanation of the dynamics of crime. After the report was published, several efforts attempted to fill this breach. We reflect on the role that the Criminal Careers report played in our own work, from the time of the report’s release to the development and assessment of what is now known as the age-graded theory of informal social control and the broader field of “life-course criminology.”

Making it on the Outside: Towards an Integrated Control Theory for Understanding the Reintegration Process

Reintegration has garnered greater attention in criminology, as many releasees from prisons are being recycled back into criminal justice systems around the world. Despite this trend, the reintegration literature to date has been mainly descriptive and few studies have paid attention to the theoretical dynamics and social context surrounding reintegration. To address this gap, we suggest that the prominent debate, mainly found in American criminology, on crime causation between Gottfredson and Hirschi's (1990) General Theory of Crime (GTC) and Sampson and Laub's (1993) and Laub and Sampson's (2003) Age-Graded Theory of Informal Social Control (AGTISC) be used to advance this largely atheoretical literature. After showing that research exploring the effects of self-control and informal social control on reintegration remains largely uncharted territory in criminological theory, we propose an integrated control theory, in addition to some methodological considerations, for better understanding reintegration.

The Importance of Romantic and Work Relations on Nonmedical Prescription Drug Use Among Adults

Drawing from Sampson and Laub's age-graded theory, we examine whether the presence and quality of social bonds influences nonmedical usage of prescription drugs (opioids, tranquilizers, sedatives, and stimulants). We analyze data from a large and nationally representative sample of adults from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health). Results from a series of logistic regression models indicate that married individuals are significantly less likely to use prescription drugs nonmedically than non-married persons. However, romantic relational satisfaction is also salient; cohabiters who are highly satisfied with their romantic unions are less likely to report misuse than cohabiters who are less satisfied in their relationships. Additionally, being highly satisfied at work predicts a lower likelihood of misuse, but only among cohabiters. Overall, age-graded theory is useful for understanding nonmedical prescription drug use, although romantic relationship bonds are generally more consistently influential than employment bonds. These results add to a growing knowledge base regarding patterns of nonmedical prescription drug use.

The effects of marriage and parenthood on offending levels over time among juvenile offenders across race and ethnicity

In criminal careers research, reasons why offenders stop offending are of importance. This study tests Sampson and Laub's age-graded theory of informal social control using a nationally representative contemporaneous sample and explores two possible turning points in the life course of individuals that could lead to desistance: marriage and parenthood. Racial and ethnic differences in the impact of these social bonds are also analyzed. In mixed support of the theory, marriage is found to lead to changes in levels of offending among whites and Hispanics but not blacks. Parenthood leads to decreases in offending among whites but not blacks or Hispanics. These results suggest possible modifications are needed to Sampson and Laub's theory. A discussion of these findings is presented.

The All-volunteer Force and Crime

Sampson and Laub’s age-graded theory of informal social control posits that social bonds created through marriage, military, and employment lead to a decrease of criminal behavior or desistance. Most research has focused primarily on the roles of marriage and employment in this process, ignoring the impact of military service on future offending behavior. However, recent US military involvement in the Middle East suggests that the effects of military experience on individuals should be reevaluated. Using data collected from a more recent sample of military-involved individuals, all of whom served in the All-volunteer Force, this study examines how participation in the military impacts offending and potential desistance. The results demonstrate that, overall, modern-day military involvement does not have the same protective effect on future offending as observed in World War II samples. Racial subgroup analyses, however, suggest that military involvement leads to a greater likelihood of desistance for minority service members.

Agency as a Cause of Crime

Laub and Sampson's age-graded theory of social control posits that the greater is a person's agency, the less that person commits crime. But agency has a dark side as well. Some people choose to offend in order to transform their life; when this happens, agency is a cause of crime. In the present article we draw on the life course and rational choice perspectives to explore this idea. Our study is based on qualitative data obtained through interviews with and observations of offenders from socially disadvantaged areas in Cape Town, South Africa. Participants cited their offending as motivated by and effective in obtaining three kinds of status: belonging in a group, respect from peers, and wealth. Further research is needed to develop understanding of this relationship, especially in terms of how it is affected by structural conditions and culture.

‘Hen's teeth and horse's toes’: the adult onset offender in criminology

Several scholars have argued that the prevalence of an adult onset of offending necessitates research and theoretical explanation, whereas other scholars remain skeptical about the existence of offenders who onset in adulthood. The reconciliation of this debate holds significant implications for the sort of criminological theory the field should value and pursue. For instance, persuasive empirical evidence of adult onset offenders supports symmetrical theories of crime, such as Sampson and Laub's age-graded theory, which allow for both positive and negative behavioral change in adulthood. In contrast, the lack of such evidence supports asymmetrical theories of crime, such as Gottfredson and Hirschi's general theory of crime, which argue that change is one way, as crime uniformly declines after an initial peak in adolescence. Using the Cambridge Study in Delinquency Development and the Rochester Youth Development Study, as well as between and within-subjects analysis, we find no evidence of true adult onset offenders, thus supporting asymmetrical theories of crime and questioning the utility of continued research and discussion on this supposed ‘type’ of offender

A Selective Review of the Risk Factors for Antisocial Behavior across the Transition to Adulthood

In this paper, we discuss the theory and research on a select set of risk factors for continuity in antisocial behavior across the transition to adulthood. Several risk factors (e.g., early onset, intelligence, marriage, employment) are based on Moffitt’s dual taxonomy and the age-graded theory of social control. In addition, we also review studies of impulsivity, school enrollment, educational attainment, academic achievement, abuse victimization, social support, poverty, deviant peers, drug and alcohol abuse, and criminal justice intervention.

Desistance in the Transition to Adulthood: The Roles of Marriage, Military, and Gender

Research is needed on desistance from crime comparatively by gender. This research uses a national longitudinal sample of youth transitioning to adulthood. Drawing on Sampson and Laub's Age-Graded Theory of Informal Social Control, social bonds found in marriage and military involvement are examined to determine if they decrease delinquency over time. The results for the full sample revealed that marriage but not military involvement led to desistance. However, gender sub-sample analyses further showed military enlistment led females, but not males, to desist from crime. Implications and future research aims are discussed.

Marriage and Offending among a Cohort of Disadvantaged African Americans

Drawing on Sampson and Laub's age-graded theory of informal social control, this research tests the generalizability of the marriage effect on desistance from crime. Specifically, do urban African American men and women living in the United States benefit from marriage similarly to Whites? The authors use hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) to analyze the relationship between marriage and official arrest counts among African American male and female first graders from Woodlawn, an inner-city community in Chicago, first assessed in 1966 and followed up at three time points (ages 16, 32, and 42). The authors find strong evidence of a marriage effect for the males across crime type, with a reduction in offending between 21 percent and 36 percent when in a state of marriage. The findings for females were less consistent across crime type, a 10 percent reduction in the odds of a property arrest and a 9 percent increase in the odds of a drug arrest when in a state of marriage. Their findings provide evidence in favor of the generality of Sampson and Laub's theory, at least for males. However, the authors were not able to evaluate the mechanisms of desistance and identify this as an area of future research.