Python Sebae Research Articles

A survey of nocturnality and risk for savanna chimpanzees at Assirik, Senegal.

Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in Senegal may use nocturnality to mitigate hyperthermia risk in semi-arid environments but the degree of nocturnality for such chimpanzees also in sympatry with large carnivores remains uncertain. We compared diel activity among chimpanzees and their potential predators at Assirik in Niokolo-Koba National Park and contextualized these findings relative to other unit-groups in savanna landscapes. From 2015-2018, we generated a predator inventory using multi-modal methods and monitored the diel activity of chimpanzees and predators with camera traps [ N = 2092 camera trap (CT) days]. From 2015-2023, we also surveyed for evidence of predation during recce walks. Six potential nonhuman predators occur at Assirik, including lions (Panthera leo), leopards (Panthera pardus), spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus), Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus), and rock pythons (Python sebae). We documented one suspected case of a predator killing a chimpanzee. Nocturnality comprised 12.7% of CT events for chimpanzees and these events were more concentrated at twilight. Chimpanzees were more active during the day, predators were more active at night, and there was substantial temporal overlap among chimpanzees and potential predators during twilight intervals. Our findings support the hypothesis that savanna chimpanzees in Senegal are active at night in response to the extremely hot environment. We hypothesize that Assirik chimpanzees experience a tension between decreasing hyperthermia and increasing predation risk during nocturnality.

High-Voltage Toxin'Roll: Electrostatic Charge Repulsion as a Dynamic Venom Resistance Trait in Pythonid Snakes.

The evolutionary interplay between predator and prey has significantly shaped the development of snake venom, a critical adaptation for subduing prey. This arms race has spurred the diversification of the components of venom and the corresponding emergence of resistance mechanisms in the prey and predators of venomous snakes. Our study investigates the molecular basis of venom resistance in pythons, focusing on electrostatic charge repulsion as a defense against α-neurotoxins binding to the alpha-1 subunit of the postsynaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. Through phylogenetic and bioactivity analyses of orthosteric site sequences from various python species, we explore the prevalence and evolution of amino acid substitutions that confer resistance by electrostatic repulsion, which initially evolved in response to predatory pressure by Naja (cobra) species (which occurs across Africa and Asia). The small African species Python regius retains the two resistance-conferring lysines (positions 189 and 191) of the ancestral Python genus, conferring resistance to sympatric Naja venoms. This differed from the giant African species Python sebae, which has secondarily lost one of these lysines, potentially due to its rapid growth out of the prey size range of sympatric Naja species. In contrast, the two Asian species Python brongersmai (small) and Python bivittatus (giant) share an identical orthosteric site, which exhibits the highest degree of resistance, attributed to three lysine residues in the orthosteric sites. One of these lysines (at orthosteric position 195) evolved in the last common ancestor of these two species, which may reflect an adaptive response to increased predation pressures from the sympatric α-neurotoxic snake-eating genus Ophiophagus (King Cobras) in Asia. All these terrestrial Python species, however, were less neurotoxin-susceptible than pythons in other genera which have evolved under different predatory pressure as: the Asian species Malayopython reticulatus which is arboreal as neonates and juveniles before rapidly reaching sizes as terrestrial adults too large for sympatric Ophiophagus species to consider as prey; and the terrestrial Australian species Aspidites melanocephalus which occupies a niche, devoid of selection pressure from α-neurotoxic predatory snakes. Our findings underline the importance of positive selection in the evolution of venom resistance and suggest a complex evolutionary history involving both conserved traits and secondary evolution. This study enhances our understanding of the molecular adaptations that enable pythons to survive in environments laden with venomous threats and offers insights into the ongoing co-evolution between venomous snakes and their prey.

The use of myths and taboos in wildlife conservation: The case of Bayelsa-East Senatorial District of Nigeria

The use of myths and taboos in species conservation represent a sustainable in situ means to wildlife protection. This study examined the role of taboos (traditional laws) in wildlife conservation within Bayelsa-East Senatorial District. Data were collected using a combination of semi-structured open-ended questionnaire guide and field observations, as well as species-evidence left behind. Informants for the study were selected from fifteen communities across the Local Government Areas (LGAs) that constitute the district. Local abundance status of the species implicated in the myths and taboos was determined within the various ecological settings, and likert scale was used to evaluate the informants’ perceptions on the taboos in relation to their effectiveness at protecting the identified species. The punishments for non-compliance with the taboos, as well as hypothetical inferences for the species conservation were documented. Ten (10) animal species in nine families were implicated in Bayelsa-East myths and taboos. The taboo animals were in 5 classes within Kingdom Animalia; members of the Class Reptilia (Crocodylus niloticus, Python regius, Python sebae and Varanus niloticus) were the most implicated; followed by Aves (Haliaetus vocifer, Macropygia doreya, Strix nebulosa). Abundance scale revealed that periwinkle (Gastropoda) was very abundant in Nembe and Brass. The informants’ perception on the effectiveness of the taboos (e.g. forbidding of hunting or killing Ekekoru, Python regius) in relation to the species protection revealed that the taboos were strongly effective in protecting the species in Nembe. The taboos in the study area were species specific, hence animals forbidden in Nembe and Brass LGA were not exclusively forbidden in Ogbia communities, and vice versa. The informants confirmed their beliefs and awe in the taboos and forbade abusive use, thus substantiating the taboos’ potential as sustainable tool for wildlife conservation.

Patterns of predation and meat-eating by chacma baboons in an Afromontane environment

Abstract Meat-eating among non-human primates has been well documented but its prevalence among Afromontane baboons is understudied. In this study we report the predatory and meat-eating behaviours of a habituated group of gray-footed chacma baboons (Papio ursinus griseipes) living in an Afromontane environment in South Africa. We calculated a vertebrate-eating rate of 1 every 78.5 hours, increasing to 58.1 hours when unsuccessful predation attempts were included. A key food source was young antelopes, particularly bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), which were consumed once every 115 observation hours. Similar to other baboon research sites, predations seemed mostly opportunistic, adult males regularly scrounged and monopolised prey, there was no evidence they used an active kill bite, and active sharing was absent. This is the first baboon study to report predation of rock python (Python sebae) eggs and likely scavenging of a leopard (Panthera pardus) kill (bushbuck) cached in a tree. We also describe several scramble kleptoparasitism events, tolerating active defence from antelope parents, and the baboons inhibiting public information about predations. In the latter case, baboons with meat often hid beyond the periphery of the group, reducing the likelihood of scrounging by competitors. This often led to prey carcasses being discarded without being fully exploited and potentially providing resources to scavengers. We also highlight the absence of encounters with numerous species, suggesting the baboons are a key component of several species’ landscapes of fear. Given these findings it seems likely that their ecological role in the Soutpansberg has been undervalued, and such conclusions may also hold for other baboon populations.

Efficacy and safety of xylazine-ketamine combination for immobilisation of captive African rock pythons (Python sebae)

The African rock python is a cosmopolitan snake in Nigeria widely kept as a zoo animal and also in recreational facilities. There is need for chemical immobilisation of this animal species for managemental, diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. A mixture of xylazine and ketamine (XK) was compared with the administration of a mixture of xylazine and normal saline solution (XS) in six captive African rock pythons in 2 trials with reference to onset and duration of anaesthesia. Changes in the heart rate (HR), respiratory rate (RR) and rectal temperature (RT) as well as selected biochemical parameters were recorded. Although there were no statistically significant (P>0.05) differences in HR and RR values between XK and XS treatments, significant (P<0.05) differences were recorded for RT. Nonetheless, the significant differences were of no clinical importance. It was therefore recommended to safely immobilise an African rock python using XK for a procedure lasting over 1 hour with minimal cardiopulmonary and plasma enzymatic effect. To the knowledge of the authors, this is the first study assessing the anaesthetic efficacy and safety in African Rock pythons.

Opportunities and challenges of human–python conflict intervention in local communities adjacent to Nyanga National Park, Zimbabwe

AbstractConservation of wildlife often results in the protection of endangered species, like the Southern African python (Python natalensis). However, wildlife tends to occur both in protected areas and human settlements and the latter results in human–wildlife conflict (HWC). Often when the species involved threaten human life and/or livestock, wildlife authorities react through Problem Animal Control (PAC). The successes and challenges of this practice often vary. We present opportunities and challenges in the practical interventions to minimize human–python conflict by the Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority (ZPWMA) in communities adjacent to Nyanga National Park (NNP). We draw on station reports and reactions of human–python conflicts (2013–2020), our involvement with communities when human–python interactions occur, and discussions with stakeholders, extension officers, and wildlife rangers and managers responsible for coordinating PAC programs. We observed that the number of human–python conflict reports have decreased in the past 5 years. Furthermore, ZPWMA's efforts to resolve HWC through PAC reactions in concert with education and awareness, as well as collaborating with stakeholders, contributed to addressing the conflict. We propose four key action areas to strengthen intervention plans and procedures. The action areas involve (i) establishing the population and distribution structure of P. natalensis, (ii) evaluation of successes of capture and release, (iii) establishing the link between python age and involvement in human–python conflicts, and (iv) assessing community perceptions towards human–python conflict reports and interventions by the ZPWMA.

Human–wildlife conflict in Mhokwe Ward, Mbire District, North‐East Zimbabwe

AbstractThis research investigates the economic and social aspects of human–wildlife conflict (HWC) in Mhokwe, Mbire district, Zimbabwe. Data were collected through key informant interviews and a questionnaire survey. Most households in Mhokwe rely on crop and livestock production, and hence, HWC is an important factor affecting livelihoods. More than 60% of respondents experienced problems with lions (Panthera leo Linnaeus), spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta Erxleben), armoured bush crickets (Acanthoplus speiseri Brancsik) and quelea birds (Quelea quelea Reichenbach). Other problem animals included elephant (Loxodonta africana Blumenbach), vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus Cuvier), kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros Pallas), chacma baboon (Papio ursinus Kerr), bushpig (Potamochoerus porcus Linnaeus) and common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia Linnaeus). Few incidences of conflicts were reported for hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius Linnaeus), side‐striped jackal (Canis adustus Sundevall), porcupine (Hystrix africaeaustralis Peters), nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus Laurenti), African wild cat (Felis lybica Forster), African python (Python sebae Gmelin) and guinea fowl (Numida meleagris Linnaeus). Livestock and crop losses were US$45,285 and US$57,541 in 2013 and 2014, respectively. Despite the losses, most respondents had positive attitudes towards wildlife. Construction of strong kraals and implementation of integrated pest management (IPM) can contribute to conflict reduction.

Perceptions, attitudes, and outcomes of human-snake encounters: A retrospective study of an online discussion community in Nigeria

Abstract. Babalola OJ, Jegede HO, Ogundro BN. 2020. Perceptions, attitudes, and outcomes of human-snake encounters: A retrospective study of an online discussion community in Nigeria. Asian J Ethnobiol 21: 1-9. The internet is a useful tool for obtaining data needed to study factors that hinder snake conservation especially in resource-limited settings. There is a paucity of peer-reviewed research on the use of online communities in the study of factors contributing to undesirable human-snake conflicts in Nigeria. A 12-month dataset (August 2016-July 2017) on human-snake encounters shared on Nairaland®- a popular online community forum in Nigeria - was retrieved and analyzed. Morphological characteristics observed in the snake photographs posted on the platform were used for species identification. A total of 203 human-snake encounters were recorded from 32/37 States of Nigeria. Men (n=133) reported more human-snake encounters than women (n =11) while “reporters of unspecified gender (n =59) accounted for the rest. Most postings were from the southern part of Nigeria with the highest number of postings from Lagos State (n =34). Of the 24 snake species reported in the study, the African Rock Python was the most encountered. The months of May to July recorded the highest number of snake species reported by the respondents. ‘Fear’ and ‘food’ were the major perceptions elicited by people during snake encounters. The outcome of human-snake conflicts resulted in snake deaths (n =182) irrespective of snake venomosity. Only 1.0% (n=2) of the snakes were protected from harm. This study revealed that data from online community forums are useful for retrospective studies of the perceptions and outcomes of human-snake encounters; the output of which policymakers and conservationists may find useful.

Erythrocyte osmotic fragility and erythrocyte sizes for captive African rock pythons (Python sebae)

The aim of the experiment was to determine the erythrocyte sizes and osmotic fragility index of the African rock python in a transitional zone. Ten African rock pythons (ARPs) were used as experimental animals. Blood samples were obtained from captive ARP by venepuncture of the ventral coccygeal vein. Erythrocyte counts, packed cell volume, mean corpuscular volume and erythrocyte sizes were determined. Erythrocytes obtained from each snake were added into saline solution of different NaCl concentrations of 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7 and 0.9 g/100 mL, respectively. Erythrocyte osmotic fragility index was determined spectrophotometrically. Mean erythrocyte size was 76.9 ± 10.2 μm and nucleus size was 9.1 ± 2.4 μm. The mean erythrocyte count obtained was 3.3 ± 0.6 × 1012/L, the mean packed cell volume obtained was 24.0 ± 2.9%, and the mean corpuscular volume was 76.4 ± 4.9 fl. The percentage haemolysis increased significantly (P < 0.05) at 0.3 g/100 mL NaCl concentration with the value of 79.9 ± 5.6%. The result of this finding adds to already available haematological data of the ARP and also showed that their erythrocyte may be extremely fragile. More research should be done on the effect of antioxidants in improving erythrocyte fragility of ARPs in the region.

Traditional medicinal animal use by Xhosa and Sotho communities in the Western Cape Province, South Africa

BackgroundThe use of animals and animal-derived materials in traditional medicine constitutes an important part of the belief systems of indigenous African cultures. It is believed to be rapidly expanding in South Africa, where traditional healers are estimated to outnumber western doctors by 2000:1 in some areas, with an overall clientele consisting of 60–80% of South African citizens. Despite concerns about the impact of the trade in traditional medicine on biodiversity, there has been only limited research on this topic in South Africa.MethodsTraditional Xhosa and Sotho healers operating from impoverished, rural communities in the Boland Region of the Western Cape Province were consulted to provide a comprehensive inventory of the number and frequency of animals used and sold. Species richness estimators, diversity indices, and a relative cultural importance (RCI) index were used to highlight species of concern and assess market dynamics.ResultsA total of 26 broad use categories for 12 types of animal parts or products from 71 species or morphospecies were recorded. The most commonly sold items were skin pieces, oil or fat, and bones. Results showed that leopard, chacma baboon, Cape porcupine, monitor lizard species, puff adder, African rock python, and black-backed jackal were the species most used in the traditional medicinal trade.ConclusionsThis study extends existing knowledge on the trade of animals in South African healing practices and provides the first attempt in the Western Cape to quantify wildlife use for cultural traditions. The results have relevance for setting conservation priorities and may assist in effective policy development inclusive of ecological sustainability priorities, as well as cultural demands.

Squamate reptiles from Kanapoi: Faunal evidence for hominin paleoenvironments

The squamate fossil record from Kanapoi reveals generic to higher-order similarities with modern East African herpetofaunas. The record is derived from surface collection and screen washing, and consists primarily of isolated vertebrae with a few maxillary and mandibular elements. The most abundant remains are vertebrae of large-bodied Python that are morphologically similar to extant Python sebae, and vertebrae of Varanus cf. (Varanus niloticus + Varanus exanthematicus). Additional cranial and vertebral remains indicate the presence of lygosomine skinks, indeterminate Varanus, Viperidae, cf. Atractaspididae, and multiple colubrine morphotypes in the Kanapoi ecosystem. Despite similarities with modern herpetofaunas, the Kanapoi record lacks taxa common to other East African records, including agamids, chamaeleonids, amphisbaenians, the elapid Naja, and typhlopids. The overall composition of the Kanapoi squamate record is consistent with paleoenvironments similar to modern shrub savanna habitats. There are no indicators of canopied forest environments in squamate faunal composition. The fossil record of Kanapoi suggests that assembly of squamate faunas of modern East Africa was well underway by the late Neogene.

Reproductive biology and maternal care of neonates in southern African python (Python natalensis)

AbstractReproductive strategies such as parental care have been pivotal in evolutionary innovations such as endothermy in birds and mammals. The diversity of reproductive biology across the squamates provides a unique opportunity for elucidating the selective forces responsible for the evolution of various reproductive strategies. Here, I report on the reproductive biology of the southern African python (Python natalensis), based on a 7‐year study of free‐ranging pythons, revealing a behavioural complexity not usually expected for snakes. Mating occurred in the austral winter, with individual males following females for more than 2 months. As is typical for pythons, females brooded eggs by coiling around the clutch. Females are capital breeders; they lost ~40% body mass during a breeding event and did not breed in consecutive years. There was no evidence of the facultative thermogenesis that has been reported in congeners, suggesting that facultative thermogenesis has arisen independently more than once in Python. Reproductive females thermoregulated more carefully than non‐reproductives, maintaining higher, more stable Tbs at all stages of reproduction, especially while brooding. This was achieved by a stereotypic basking regime facilitated by ‘facultative melanism’, with females darkening significantly for the entire breeding event. Mothers remained with neonates at the nest site for approximately 2 weeks after hatching. During this time, mothers alternated between brief bouts of basking on the surface and coiling around the hatched eggs, on which the neonates rested. Neonates formed an aggregation near the burrow entrance to bask during the day, individually returning to the nest intermittently throughout the day. During the night, neonates remained within the mother's coils on the hatched eggs. This study highlights the diversity of reproductive biology within Python and cautions against generalization in this regard. This is the first unambiguous report of maternal care of neonates in an oviparous snake.

Hematological and plasma chemistry values for the African rock python (Python sebae)

Hematology and plasma biochemistry parameters are useful in the assessment and management of threatened and endangered species. Although reference values are readily available for many mammalian species, reference values for snakes are lacking for most species. We determined hematology and plasma biochemistry values for captive African rock pythons (Python sebae) and studied the effects of age, sex, season and hemoparasites on these values. Blood (5 mL) was collected by venipuncture of ventral coccygeal vein from 19 African rock pythons in rainy season and 14 snakes from the same population in dry season. There was no significant statistical difference (P < .05) between males and females to any of the parameters measured except total calcium in the rainy season. Significantly higher values were obtained (P < .05) for the white blood cells (WBC), heterophils, lymphocytes, mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) in the dry versus the rainy seasons while there were significantly lower values obtained for red blood cells (RBC), glucose and total protein. Statistically significant differences in lymphocyte and monocyte counts were however found between adult and juvenile snakes. Differences in parameters for hepatozoon positive and hepatozoon negative snakes were not statistically significant although parameters like the total WBC count, heterophils and lymphocytes were markedly higher for hepatozoon positive snakes while packed cell volume (PCV) was slightly lower. This is the first study on blood parameters of the African rock python and serves as first pilot values for clinical assessments and future studies of this species.

Armillifer-Infected Snakes Sold at Congolese Bushmeat Markets Represent an Emerging Zoonotic Threat.

African pythons (Pythonidae) and large vipers (Bitis spp.) act as definitive hosts for Armillifer armillatus and Armillifer grandis parasites (Crustacea: Pentastomida) in the Congo Basin. Since the proportion of snakes in bushmeat gradually increases, human pentastomiasis is an emerging zoonotic disease. To substantiate the significance of this threat, we surveyed snakes offered for human consumption at bushmeat markets in the Kole district, Democratic Republic of the Congo, for the presence of adult pentastomids. In Bitis vipers (n = 40), Armillifer spp. infestations exhibited an 87.5% prevalence and 6.0 median intensity. Parasite abundance covaried positively with viper length, but not with body mass. In pythons (n = 13), Armillifer spp. exhibited a 92.3% prevalence and 3.5 median intensity. The positive correlations between parasite abundance and python length or mass were statistically nonsignificant. Ninety-one percent of A. grandis were discovered in vipers and 97% of infected vipers hosted A. grandis, whereas 81% of A. armillatus specimens were found in pythons and 63% of infected pythons hosted A. armillatus. Thus, challenging the widespread notion of strict host specificity, we found ‘reversed’ infections and even a case of coinfection. In this study, we also gathered information about the snake consumption habits of different tribal cultures in the area. Infective parasite ova likely transmit to humans directly by consumption of uncooked meat, or indirectly through contaminated hands, kitchen tools or washing water.

Reptiles traded in markets for medicinal purposes in contemporary Morocco

Reptiles are traded globally for medicinal purposes. Historic qualitative accounts of reptiles used as medicine in Morocco are numerous, but contemporary quantitative data are rare. In 2013- 2014, we surveyed 49 wildlife markets in 20 towns throughout Morocco, plus the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla. We recorded 1,586 specimens of at least nine species for sale in 14 of the Moroccan markets with a combined value of about US $100,000. The most prominent markets were those in Marrakesh, Meknes, Casablanca, and Fez, with the former two cites trading equal quantities of dried and live specimens and the latter two trading mainly dried specimens. Common species were the Mediterranean chameleon (Chamaeleo chamaeleon) with 720 specimens (506 dried, 214 alive) and the Bell’s Dabb lizard (Uromastyx acanthinura) with 428 specimens (247 dried, 181 alive), both traded in 10 markets, and spur-thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca; 57 carapaces), for sale in eight cities. Over 200 African rock python (Python sebae) skins were identified and may have been illicitly imported from other parts of Africa. The turnover of Mediterranean chameleon and Bell’s Dabb lizard specimens after four weeks as measured by repeat surveys was 66% for both species, resulting in an estimated annual turnover of 1,520 chameleons (range 921–2,303) and 775 lizards (range 364–1,174). Despite legal protection and regulations locally within Morocco and internationally through CITES, reptiles are commonly and openly traded for medicinal purposes throughout Morocco. However, traders are not forthcoming in conveying the legal status of these species and restrictions on trade to potential buyers. Increased enforcement of existing wildlife protection legislation is needed to prevent this exploitation from the illegal wildlife trade that could negatively impacts imperiled species.

The Role of Traditional Taboos and Custom as Complementary Tools in Wildlife Conservation Within Mount Cameroon National Park Buea

This study was carried out to examine the use of traditional taboos and custom in wildlife conservation in the Mount Cameroon National Park. A purposive sampling technique was used in selecting 13 villages from the 41 villages surrounding the park. A total number of 130 respondents were randomly selected for the study and data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistics. From the results, majorities (76.67%) of the respondents were male and, fall within the age range of 50–59 years (62.5%), attained secondary education and 80.83% were Christians. As the results reveal, a good percentage of the respondents were conversant with cultural practices and its impact in wild animal conservation as 70.83% and 20.83% of the respondents strongly agree and agree respectively that cultural practices are used for conserving wildlife species. Religion, migration and westernization were found to be responsible for the decline of cultural practices in wildlife conservation within the study area. One animal, the African forest elephant is reverenced as a deity throughout the study area, although there were taboos forbidding indigenes/residents from killing or eating some particular wildlife species (Chimpanzee, Western bush pig, African python, Preuss monkey, Blue duiker, Drill, African civet, African wild dog, Black kite, White-face owl and snail spp). Illegal communal hunting is still practiced in the area. It is recommended that new and holistic wildlife conservation policies that will blend traditional systems of regulation, myths, rituals, and perceptions with existing wildlife legislation in the country be implemented to enhance conservation in this area.

Molecular Identification of Cryptosporidium Species from Pet Snakes in Thailand.

Cryptosporidium is an important pathogen causing gastrointestinal disease in snakes and is distributed worldwide. The main objectives of this study were to detect and identify Cryptosporidium species in captive snakes from exotic pet shops and snake farms in Thailand. In total, 165 fecal samples were examined from 8 snake species, boa constrictor (Boa constrictor constrictor), corn snake (Elaphe guttata), ball python (Python regius), milk snake (Lampropeltis triangulum), king snake (Lampropeltis getula), rock python (Python sebae), rainbow boa (Epicrates cenchria), and carpet python (Morelia spilota). Cryptosporidium oocysts were examined using the dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)-modified acid-fast staining and a molecular method based on nested-PCR, PCR-RFLP analysis, and sequencing amplification of the SSU rRNA gene. DMSO-modified acid-fast staining revealed the presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts in 12 out of 165 (7.3%) samples, whereas PCR produced positive results in 40 (24.2%) samples. Molecular characterization indicated the presence of Cryptosporidium parvum (mouse genotype) as the most common species in 24 samples (60%) from 5 species of snake followed by Cryptosporidium serpentis in 9 samples (22.5%) from 2 species of snake and Cryptosporidium muris in 3 samples (7.5%) from P. regius.

Postovipositional development of the sand snake Psammophis sibilans (Serpentes:Lamprophiidae) in comparison with other snake species

AbstractCharacterizing and comparing developmental progress across different species helps to interpret how different or similar body forms evolved. We present an embryonic table for the oviparous African Sand Snake Psammophis sibilans from the Lamprophidae family, describing its postovipositional in ovo development. Psammophis is a good model of a genus that is widely distributed in Africa and Asia and includes 22 species. We describe ten embryonic stages based on the development of externally visible morphological characteristics such as; pharyngeal arches, facial processes, eyes, scales, body pigmentation and body colour pattern development. This study discusses the development of this snake and compares it with that of the closely related brown house snake Lamprophis fulliginosus (Lamprophidae) and the medically important venomous cobras Naja haje haje and Naja kaouthia from the sister lineage Elapidae. The distantly related basal snake Python sebae, which displays different morphology and behaviour, was chosen for deeper insight into the evolution of body structures within the snake clade. We found interspecific differences in the relative stage of development of embryonic structures at the time of oviposition and during postovipositional embryonic development. One of the outcomes of this study is that embryonic structures such as the pharyngeal processes, eye pigmentation and scales are interspecifically conservative in regard to timing of morphodifferentiation, while body pigmentation, colour and colour pattern are interspecifically plastic in their temporospatial development.

In situ cardiac perfusion reveals interspecific variation of intraventricular flow separation in reptiles.

The ventricles of non-crocodilian reptiles are incompletely divided and provide an opportunity for mixing of oxygen-poor blood and oxygen-rich blood (intracardiac shunting). However, both cardiac morphology and in vivo shunting patterns exhibit considerable interspecific variation within reptiles. In the present study, we develop an in situ double-perfused heart approach to characterise the propensity and capacity for shunting in five reptile species: the turtle Trachemys scripta, the rock python Python sebae, the yellow anaconda Eunectes notaeus, the varanid lizard Varanus exanthematicus and the bearded dragon Pogona vitticeps To simulate changes in vascular bed resistance, pulmonary and systemic afterloads were independently manipulated and changes in blood flow distribution amongst the central outflow tracts were monitored. As previously demonstrated in Burmese pythons, rock pythons and varanid lizards exhibited pronounced intraventricular flow separation. As pulmonary or systemic afterload was raised, flow in the respective circulation decreased. However, flow in the other circulation, where afterload was constant, remained stable. This correlates with the convergent evolution of intraventricular pressure separation and the large intraventricular muscular ridge, which compartmentalises the ventricle, in these species. Conversely, in the three other species, the pulmonary and systemic flows were strongly mutually dependent, such that the decrease in pulmonary flow in response to elevated pulmonary afterload resulted in redistribution of perfusate to the systemic circuit (and vice versa). Thus, in these species, the muscular ridge appeared labile and blood could readily transverse the intraventricular cava. We conclude that relatively minor structural differences between non-crocodilian reptiles result in the fundamental changes in cardiac function. Further, our study emphasises that functionally similar intracardiac flow separation evolved independently in lizards (varanids) and snakes (pythons) from an ancestor endowed with the capacity for large intracardiac shunts.

English

The herpetofaunal species in Ghana are under serious threat from habitat loss and degradation, global climate change, disease and parasitism, introduced invasive species and unsustainable use. The herpetofaunal species of the Kogyae Strict Nature Reserve of Ghana were surveyed using two methods: refuge examination via direct searches, visual/audio surveys and interviews of local residents. Data were obtained during two visits to two study sites in 2012: savanna woodland and riparian forest mosaic. The first visit was in the dry season in January, 2012 for five days and the second visit in the rainy season in June, 2012 for six days. Thirty-six herpetofaunal species were recorded, comprising of 14 amphibians and 22 reptiles. Ten of the reptiles were recorded only from interviews. The savanna woodland recorded a higher number of species (33) than the riparian forest mosaic (22), and there was low similarity in species between the two sites (Sorenson&rsquo;s similarity index, CS = 0.42). Four species were frequently encountered at both sites in high numbers: Phrynobatrachus natalensis, Phrynobatrachus latifrons, Arthroleptis spp. and Trachylepis affinis. Two lizard (Varanus niloticus and Varanus exanthematicus) and two snake (Python sebae and Python regius) species are of both local and global conservation significance. The lizards are categorized under Schedule I (complete protection) and the pythons under Schedule II (partial protection) of the Ghana Wildlife Conservation Regulations. The main threats to the herpetofaunal species of the study area include habitat destruction due to annual bushfires and killing of large reptiles like the monitors as well as snakes. It is recommended that riparian vegetation bordering streams should be particularly targeted to conserve herpetofauna of the study area. &nbsp; Key words: Africa, biodiversity, Ghana, herpetofauna, Kogyae, protected area, reserve. &nbsp