African Maritime Research Articles

Maritime security and the inter-agency challenge: The case of Ghana

ABSTRACT Maritime security is a major international concern with the Gulf of Guinea recognised as one of the global hotspots of blue crime, such as piracy, kidnap for ransom, trafficking of narcotics, human and arms, and illegal fishing. The complex and complicated challenge of maritime security, a wicked problem, calls for inter-agency coordination, synergy of efforts and scaling up of responses. Given the complexity of maritime security threats, no single organisation has the institutional muscle to single-handedly deal with it. Drawing on evidence from Ghana, where the arrival of maritime security as a concept triggered a shift from single to a multi-agency approach to dealing with maritime issues, the article examines the potential of and challenges associated with inter-agency coordination. In line with recent international developments, African nations like Ghana aim to apply the concept of inter-agency coordination to tackle maritime insecurity in its waters. The paper assesses how inter-agency coordination could be used in an African maritime security governance context, while examining power imbalance, strife for agency autonomy and other obstacles that have to be addressed to ensure that the promises associated with the concept are fulfilled.

Positioning African Maritime Services as Key Enablers of the Emerging Single African Market

Positioning African Maritime Services as Key Enablers of the Emerging Single African Market

ASSESSING THE ALIGNMENT OF LEAN MAINTENANCE PRACTICES IN A SOUTH AFRICAN MARITIME VALVES AND PUMPS WORKSHOP

Lean maintenance practices have gained prominence for enhancing operational efficiency, reducing waste, and improving overall performance in maintenance, repair, and overhaul (MRO) environments. Lean principles have shown success in various industries, but their applicability and effectiveness in the unique context of maritime MRO workshops is still relatively unexplored. This research employs a mixed-method research approach, which entails qualitative and quantitative data-gathering through interviews, structured questionnaires, and observations. The assessment of a South African maritime valves and pumps MRO workshop revealed a predominant reliance on reactive maintenance, with no implementation of lean maintenance practices. This approach could lead to significant inefficiencies, including the increased downtime of valves and pumps, higher maintenance costs, and operational disruptions. To address these problems, it is recommended that comprehensive lean maintenance training and standardised maintenance processes be implemented, enhanced data use be invested in, and a culture of continuous improvement be fostered.

Decommissioning, Safety and Africa’s Blue Energy Economy: An Analysis of the African Integrated Maritime Strategy (Aims) 2050.

The African maritime region is home to a variety of natural resources, including oil and gas and has significant potential for the maximisation of emerging offshore energy resources like wind, tidal and hydrogen. While thse discussions on the economic exploitation of these resources and the environmental dimensions of decommissioning have been the focus of numerous studies,1 the analysis of the legal and regulatory regime for safe decommissioning these assets and installations are quite limited. Considering that safety is an important consideration in the decommissioning of offshore oil and gas installations, this article takes a particularly unique position in critically examining the safety implications of offshore decommissioning of oil and gas infrastructures and the regulatory regime that is required to mitigate these safety risks. From an African context, it argues that the regulatory architecture for ensuring the safe removal of these offshore assets have not been give the required attention. More specifically, the decommissioning regime under the various African Conventions and particularly the African Integrated Maritime Strategy (AIMS) 2050, does not provide for a safety risk governance model as well as the various measures of regulatory scrutiny that ensures compliance in such a high and major risk operation. Drawing lessons from the European Safety Directive 2013 that was adopted following the 2010 Macondo disaster,2 this article argues for the adoption of a safety case-like regulatory strategy that requires members states to promote the adoption of a Mazard report.

Whose security is it? Elitism and the global approach to maritime security in Africa

Africa’s marine environment and resources that lie beneath it are central to the continent’s sustainable development and actualising the ambitions set out by the African Union in its Agenda 2063, where the oceans are described as the frontier of Africa’s development. The continent’s maritime domain and resources are also attractive to foreign partners relying on its oceans to enhance their economic development and geostrategic interests. Serving the interests of all parties, especially the 38 coastal states and the Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and land-linked countries on the continent that benefit from the maritime sector, comes with challenges, some of which manifest as threats to the sustainable resource extraction and safety of those that use the maritime domain. We explored the literature, policy documents and maritime security reports database, together with our experiences as African maritime governance and security experts, to critically examine maritime security in Africa and unravel how extra-regional actors have securitised maritime threats. We show how the selective framing of what constitutes threats and associated resourcing of responses to counter them, often dictated by foreign interests, is an elite project that undermines a holistic notion of maritime security that would benefit the African people.

A Critical Reflection on African Maritime Cybersecurity Frameworks

ith a coastline of 26,000 nautical miles and 38 out of 55 African states being either coastal or island states, trading activities on the continent are facilitated by over a hundred port facilities in the region, which make up 90 per cent of African seaborne trade. These factors indicate that the continent is dependent on well-run ports, effective protection of its maritime resources, and regulated shipping. Regulating the maritime sector requires new technologies that come at the cost of cyber vulnerabilities. However, in Africa, there are very few legal instruments, both at national and at regional level, specifically addressing the issue of cyberattacks on ships and port facilities. Given the lack of attention given to maritime security and the lack of collective action from African states, the study on which this article reports, sought to provide a critical reflection on how cyber technology is affecting is affecting the African maritime domain; and the consequences that could manifest should the cybersecurity of ships, ports, and their critical infrastructure continue to be ignored. The aim of this study was to broaden the understanding of the maritime cybersecurity legal frameworks in Africa by using the ‘black letter’ methodology, which is a positivist approach described by academics as being the best avenue by which to assess the existence, meaning and application of a defined system of legal principles. In engaging with those conventions, policies, laws, and regulations that are currently guiding the area of maritime cybersecurity, the study sought to identify the gaps in the legal frameworks on the continent and to provide policy recommendations.

Challenges in International Convention on the Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping Compliance: A case study of the South African Maritime Education and Training System

Maritime education and training (MET) has been instrumental in the development of seafarers in South Africa and internationally. As a result, different MET systems are used to not only produce eligible maritime professionals but to ensure that they comply with the requirements of the International Convention on the Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping (STCW) 1978, as amended in Manila. Some of the challenges in MET prove not to be exclusive but common to some maritime countries. As such, this study aims to explore South Africa’s unique approach to MET rather than the conventional approach of having higher education institutions dedicated specifically to maritime education and maritime training. This has created the need to analyse how the current MET system delivers training in compliance with the minimum standards of the convention. This paper therefore analyses how the STCW Convention and Code is embedded in the MET system in South Africa, and identifies the existing challenges in meeting the requirements of the convention, as well as identifying opportunities for improvement. The identification of challenges and opportunities is investigated by means of desktop research, reviewing existing literature, a document analyses on the academic and technical (vocational) framework, and a review of existing practice and benchmarking this against international practice standards (STCW). This paper proposes a framework that could contribute to the improvement of the current MET system in line with the requirements of the STCW 1978 as amended.

IOT and IIOT Security for the South African Maritime and Freight Transport Sectors

The advent of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) has seen a rapid increase in connected smart devices known as the Internet of Things (IoT). While this ‘revolution’ is most noticeable in commercial devices, there has also been an evolution in industrial devices, known as the Industrial Internet of Things. As Africa – and in particular South Africa – is racing to compete in the 4IR, various sectors, including the transport sector, are introducing innovative projects. However, the Internet of Things and the Industrial Internet of Things present cybersecurity risks. Cybersecurity itself is also considered a key component of the 4IR; yet, organisations often neglect to consider the security implications of the Internet of Things. The current research aimed to evaluate and prioritise cyber threats, vulnerabilities, and risk related to the Internet of Things and the Industrial Internet of Things in the South African physical transport sector. This article focuses on the responses to a questionnaire to obtain quantitative data from those with experience in the related fields. The threats and vulnerabilities of concern are illustrated, and the risks are evaluated based on the perceived impact of such risks and the likelihood of the Internet of Things and the Industrial Internet of Things being compromised. While no clear leaders of risk were found, the top three risks based on the perceived severity and likelihood are unavailability of Internet of Things and Industrial Internet of Things devices and/or networks, damage to reputation, and cyberespionage.

South African Maritime Skills Supply and Demand

The South African International Maritime Institute (SAIMI) is engaged in answering the questions that centre around whether the country’s maritime skills supply matches the industry’s demand. The SAIMI commissioned a study1 to evaluate the maritime skills situation in South Africa, culminating in a final report in 2019. The purpose of this study was to determine the overall demand for maritime and ocean economy skills in order to grow the sector, and to determine whether there is adequate capacity within the skill supply framework to meet this demand. This exercise required an assessment of the anticipated demand and the current supply of skills capacity in South Africa, with any surplus or deficit being clearly highlighted. The author investigated a number of credible studies and international best practice examples within a framework supported by the latest skills data about the supply and demand dynamics in the maritime economy arena. It was found that South Africa is producing graduates with maritime-related qualifications in sufficient numbers, but not with the relevant types of skills required by the industry, which are mainly technical and professional maritime skills. A shift in emphasis is required to prioritise scarce, critical and future-proof skills for the growth of the maritime economy, with a particular emphasis on the maritime skills that will be needed in the context of the fourth industrial revolution (4IR). This work was presented to a representative platform of stakeholders in industry, academia and government at the SAIMI Forward Thinking Conference for Maritime Education and Training Excellence2 to review current maritime skills capacity against future demand and to consider collaborative and collective ways to close the skills gap. The outcome of the conference confirmed this report’s findings and recommendations to address these shortcomings. A focussed and driven programme is required within the South African maritime environment to align and accelerate all maritime education, research and skills enhancement to the market needs of the maritime sector, with the private sector directly involved throughout.

Delineating the relationship between maritime insecurity and COVID-19 pandemic on West African maritime trade

In this paper, three steps are made. First, an effort is made to show a consequential effect of maritime insecurity on seafarers and marine professionals; they are at risk of a complicated string of processes that impact their lives. Second, there is the risk to the environment and property. Third, the economic cost of traditional maritime crimes is examined against the potential maritime trade expansion from implementing the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA). Third, the policy and regulatory measures implemented in the region against piracy are assessed to propose additional measures for improvement. Essentially, the study deploys a case study approach with a three-year field observation over the Gulf of Guinea region and is supported by outcomes of various remote interviews, in addition to online surveys conducted over three months—findings are juxtaposed with the estimated cost of piracy and potential implications for policies driving economic advancement. The results showed inadequate maritime surveillance despite enormous legal frameworks amidst the current structures of regional and international corporations. The piracy cost is high and inevitable as a factor of insurance coverage passed onto end consumers. Response to piracy has been reactionary rather than proactive, as attacks have continued in territorial and offshore areas into 2021. The impact will be visible on AfCFTA post-COVID-19. The study highlights the need for a community-based approach to surveillance modelled after the community policing model currently implemented in Ghana.

Overview of the Skills Required for Marine Protection and Ocean Governance

This paper provides an overview of the skills required for marine protection and ocean governance by focusing on five aspects on a regional basis, namely maritime knowledge, maritime awareness, maritime safety, maritime security and maritime integrity. It is concluded that a focus on the development and retention of the skills required in these regards is necessary for the state to optimally govern the South African maritime domain in the interests of all South Africans, to ensure that South Africa protects its lawful interests on the high seas and to enable South Africa to make its full contribution to the integrated governance of the African maritime domain.

Combating Cybersecurity Threats in the African Maritime Domain

Combating Cybersecurity Threats in the African Maritime Domain

The East African Maritime Domain Dispute: The Case of Kenya and Somalia

The East African Maritime Domain Dispute: The Case of Kenya and Somalia

A Sea of Caribbean Islands: Maritime Maroons in the Greater Caribbean

ABSTRACT This article considers how maritime maroons used Atlantic networks of communication to determine which overseas locations to escape to, relying on African maritime techniques and skills as well as understanding of tropical wind patterns to escape using African-style dugout canoes, paddleboards/surfboards, and their swimming bodies to redefine their lives. Elaborating on the intellectual frameworks of Julius Scott and Epeli Hau‘ofa, this article also examines how captives’ layered African cultural, spiritual, and political meanings onto the ‘Greater Caribbean’ to transform it into a ‘sea of islands’, providing belonging and hope to captives’ exploited lives. Cultural understandings of the Caribbean and surrounding continents and African maritime expertise enabled maritime maroons to use seas to connect them to distant opportunities.

Perspectives on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the global and African maritime transport sectors, and the potential implications for Africa’s maritime governance

The maritime transport sector (MTS) has been impacted by the coronavirus 2019 pandemic, with significant disruptions to shipping and maritime activity along established transport routes. This paper examines the impacts of the pandemic on the MTS, at the global and African levels, and discusses what Africa’s priorities for its MTS should be in the post-pandemic era. The short-term impacts of the pandemic are identified as including a drop in the volume of trade transported by maritime shipping; disruptions due to re-routed shipments; maritime defaults and bankruptcies; and stranded seafarers. To understand the longer-term impacts, the paper analyzes the pandemic’s effect on five critical trends facing the MTS globally, viz, trade tensions, geopolitical developments, structural disruptions, regulatory pressures, and environmental incidents. In the African context, the paper highlights that with a mere 4% share of global container port traffic and a 7% and 5% share, respectively, of international maritime exports and imports (measured by tonnage), Africa’s significance to the global MTS is not huge. Hence, an impact analysis based on the global MTS trends would be premature. The paper concludes that Africa’s MTS in the post-pandemic era should focus on improving operational performance and sustainable development. Africa should also improve maritime governance to ensure that desired developmental outcomes are realized. It is argued that adopting a multi-stakeholder governance framework will be most appropriate for the continent’s MTS in the post-pandemic era. Further research is however needed to identify how a multi-stakeholder governance framework should be adapted and deployed to fit different African environments.

East African Maritime Imagination, with Yvonne Adhiambo Owuor

© Bob NyanjaYvonne Adhiambo Owuor is a Nairobi-based writer whose work engages with water as a carrier, a witness, and an agent of memory and stories. She won the Caine Prize for African Writing in...

Violent Extremism in The African Maritime Domain: The Case of The Mozambique Channel

Violent Extremism in The African Maritime Domain: The Case of The Mozambique Channel

Book Review: African Seaports and Maritime Economics in Historical Perspective by Ayodeji Olukoju and Daniel Castillo Hidalgo

Book Review: <i>African Seaports and Maritime Economics in Historical Perspective</i> by Ayodeji Olukoju and Daniel Castillo Hidalgo

The 2050 Africa’s Integrated Maritime Strategy: The Combined Exclusive Maritime Zone of Africa as an instrument of sustainable development of the African Large Marine Ecosystems

Abstract: The large marine ecosystems (LMEs) and the combined exclusive maritime zone of Africa (CEMZA) have in common that they are instruments making it possible to overcome the division of the African Maritime Domain into almost 40 national maritime domains. After identifying the eight LMEs around Africa and exploring the CEMZA concept within the context of the 2050 Africa’s Integrated Maritime Strategy, the paper attempts to ascertain the extent to which the establishment of the CEMZA could contribute to the sustainable development of the African LMEs and concludes that, while this contribution would be limited, it could be significant at the monitoring and enforcement levels.

AU AIM Strategy and the Fragmentation of IUU Fishing Regulations in Africa: the Case of West Africa

Abstract In Africa, the west suffers the most from Illegal, Unreported, and unregulated fishing which necessitated national, regional, and continental efforts to put in place legal mechanisms to halt the situation. This resulted in the fragmentation of rules dealing with IUU, with AU’s 2050 African Maritime Strategy and the Lomé Charter being the grand Continental ones. This article will provide a brief assessment of the legal mechanisms of the African Union vis-à-vis the rules of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and the fragmentation or harmonization of those rules. The paper argues that fragmentation of rules at regional and sub-regional levels is not necessarily counterproductive as long as all parties coordinate by focusing on filling existing gaps rather than allowing overlaps.