African Honey Research Articles

HBeeID: a molecular tool that identifies honey bee subspecies from different geographic populations

BackgroundHoney bees are the principal commercial pollinators. Along with other arthropods, they are increasingly under threat from anthropogenic factors such as the incursion of invasive honey bee subspecies, pathogens and parasites. Better tools are needed to identify bee subspecies. Genomic data for economic and ecologically important organisms is increasing, but in its basic form its practical application to address ecological problems is limited.ResultsWe introduce HBeeID a means to identify honey bees. The tool utilizes a knowledge-based network and diagnostic SNPs identified by discriminant analysis of principle components and hierarchical agglomerative clustering. Tests of HBeeID showed that it identifies African, Americas-Africanized, Asian, and European honey bees with a high degree of certainty even when samples lack the full 272 SNPs of HBeeID. Its prediction capacity decreases with highly admixed samples.ConclusionHBeeID is a high-resolution genomic, SNP based tool, that can be used to identify honey bees and screen species that are invasive. Its flexible design allows for future improvements via sample data additions from other localities.

Navigating the Honey Markets Across Europe and Africa

India ranks fourth globally in terms of honey export but the Indian honey was mainly exported to American and Asian continent consisting of over 85 per cent of total honey exported by India leaving huge untapped potential in Europe which is second largest importer of honey worldwide as well as Africa. Keeping this in mind an analysis of European and African honey market was done using secondary data and results were interpreted in excel sheet. It was found that European honey production was primarily led by Spain. The continent accounted for approximately 45 per cent of global honey imports, with Germany being the largest importer with imported value of 306674.7 thousand USD (2023). India shared less than 0.1 per cent of total European honey imports. It was also observed that Africa contributed to 10 per cent of the world's total honey output. The continent’s honey import was considerably lower than global imports. In terms of export, Egypt led African honey exports. India shared only 12 per cent of total honey imports to Africa. It was noted that both Europe and Africa presented huge untapped potential for Indian honey. It was suggested to improve post harvest management of honey for maintaining quality standards and government support for increasing exports to the continents.

Peer Review of “Raw, Unadulterated African Honey for Ulcer Healing in Leprosy: Protocol for the Honey Experiment on Leprosy Ulcer (HELP) Randomized Controlled Trial”

Peer Review of “Raw, Unadulterated African Honey for Ulcer Healing in Leprosy: Protocol for the Honey Experiment on Leprosy Ulcer (HELP) Randomized Controlled Trial”

Authors' Response to Peer Reviews of "Raw, Unadulterated African Honey for Ulcer Healing in Leprosy: Protocol for the Honey Experiment on Leprosy Ulcer (HELP) Randomized Controlled Trial".

Authors' Response to Peer Reviews of "Raw, Unadulterated African Honey for Ulcer Healing in Leprosy: Protocol for the Honey Experiment on Leprosy Ulcer (HELP) Randomized Controlled Trial".

Peer Review of "Raw, Unadulterated African Honey for Ulcer Healing in Leprosy: Protocol for the Honey Experiment on Leprosy Ulcer (HELP) Randomized Controlled Trial".

Peer Review of "Raw, Unadulterated African Honey for Ulcer Healing in Leprosy: Protocol for the Honey Experiment on Leprosy Ulcer (HELP) Randomized Controlled Trial".

Raw, Unadulterated African Honey for Ulcer Healing in Leprosy: Protocol for the Honey Experiment on Leprosy Ulcer (HELP) Randomized Controlled Trial.

Leprosy leads to nerve damage and slow-healing ulcers, which are treatable with routine therapy. There has been a recent resurgence of interest in the use of honey for the treatment of different kinds of wounds. The aim of this study, Honey Experiment on Leprosy Ulcer (HELP), is to evaluate the healing properties of raw, unadulterated African honey in comparison with normal saline dressing for the treatment leprosy ulcers. This is a multicenter, comparative, prospective, single-blinded, parallel-group, and 1:1 individually randomized controlled trial to be conducted at The Leprosy Referral Hospital, Chanchaga in Minna, Niger State, North Central Nigeria, and St. Benedict Tuberculosis and Leprosy Rehabilitation Hospital in Ogoja, Cross River State, South-South Nigeria. Raw, unadulterated honey will be used in the ulcer dressing of eligible, consenting participants in the intervention group, whereas those in the control group will be treated by dressing with normal saline. The main outcomes will be the proportion of complete healing and the rate of healing up to 84 days after randomization. Follow-up will be conducted 6 months after randomization. We aim to enroll 90-130 participants into the study. Blinded observers will examine photographs of ulcers to determine the outcomes. The recruitment of trial participants began on March 14, 2022, and has been continuing for approximately 24 months. Our study will provide an unbiased estimate of the effect of honey on the healing of neuropathic ulcers.

A Hitchhiker’s Ride: The Honey Bee Louse Braula Coeca (Diptera: Braulidae) Selects its Host by Eavesdropping

The bee louse Braula spp. had until recently a distribution coincident with its host the honey bee. The adult fly usually attaches to a worker honey bee and steals food from its mouth. However, not all worker bees carry Braula spp. and the mechanism used by Braula spp. to select hosts is not well understood. Using choice remounting bioassays and chemical analyses, we determined host selection and the cues used by B. coeca, a species associated with the African honey bee Apis mellifera scutellata. Braula coeca successfully remounted bees from which they were initially removed and preferred their mandibular gland pheromones (MDG) over those of bees not carrying them. The bee lice did not show any preference for the cuticular hydrocarbons of both types of workers. Chemical analyses of the MDG extracts, revealed quantitative differences between the two categories of workers, with workers carrying B. coeca having more of the queen substance (9-oxo-2(E)-decenoic acid) and worker substance (10-hydroxy-2(E)-decenoic). Braula coeca showed a dose response to the queen substance, indicating its ability to use host derived kairomones as cues that allowed it to benefit from trophallactic dominance by individuals that have a higher probability of being fed by other workers.

Aggressive dominance of acacia floral resources by wild east African lowland honey bees

AbstractThe East African lowland honey bee (Apis mellifera scutellata) is reported as an aggressive subspecies of the Western honey bee, but few studies have investigated the impact of its aggressiveness on other insect pollinators. Observations of flower visitors to Vachellia (Acacia) etbaica and interactions between honey bees and other insects were conducted in 2022 in Mpala, Kenya. A total of 873 individual flower visitors were recorded, the most frequent being Hymenoptera, followed by Diptera and Lepidoptera. Honey bees dominated floral resources in the morning and late afternoon. When honey bees encountered other types of insects, they displaced the latter from flowers 100% of the time. This has never been observed in other Western honey bee subspecies, and we recommend further research on these taxa.

Genetic Diversity of West African Honey Bee (Apis ‎mellifera adansonii Latreille, 1804) from Rural and Urban ‎Areas of ‎Kwara State, North-Central Nigeria

Over one third of the world’s crops– including fruits, vegetables, nuts, spices, and oilseed–‎require insect pollination, and human reliance on ‎pollination services by honey bees (Apis ‎mellifera) to promote these crops continues to rise due to increasing demands from growing ‎human ‎populations. Identifying the effects of urbanization on genetic diversity on this ‎pollinating insect is important in the field of bioscience. This study aimed to investigate genetic diversity of A. mellifera in Kwara State, Nigeria, using the random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) marker. ‎Thirty honey bees ‎were simultaneously collected from both rural and urban regions in ‎Kwara state, Nigeria. Samples were morphologically identified using ‎standard methods, ‎genomic DNA isolated and amplified using five RAPD primers. Data collected were ‎analysed using PyElph, ‎ARLEQUIN, and GeneAlEx version 6.501 software. The results ‎showed that the DNA fragment sizes produced per primer varied from 200 to ‎‎3000 bp. Percentages of polymorphic loci amplified by each primer varied from 17.33 to 33.33%. ‎Analysis of unbiased Nei genetic ‎distance values showed that Agbede (rural) and Adewole ‎‎(urban) showed the highest value of unbiased genetic distance (0.073), while ‎Amoyo ‎‎(rural) to Idofian (urban) exhibited the lowest value (0.027). Dendrogram analysis revealed ‎genetically close relationships among the sampled ‎A. mellifera‎ populations. The low level of genetic ‎polymorphisms observed among the honey bee populations in the two ‎regions ‎indicated that there is genetic relatedness among them. This study concluded that RAPD ‎marker is a useful method for ‎understanding population genetic structure of the African honey ‎bees. These results can be used as baseline information for future genetic ‎diversity ‎assessment of honey bees in Nigeria with larger samples. It is therefore recommended that ‎there is a need to safeguard the genetic ‎diversity of A. mellifera‎ to prevent extinction or ‎gradual loss of diversity‎‎‎.

Effect of bee bread on Africanized honey bees infected with spores of Nosema spp.

Floral diversity allows honey bees, Apis mellifera L. (including its hybrids between subspecies) (Hymenoptera: Apidae), to meet their nutritional requirements. However, infection by Nosema spp. (Microsporidia: Nosematidae) destroys a bee's digestive epithelium, hindering the ability to absorb nutrients. In some subtropical regions, such as the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico, nosemosis is one of the most widespread diseases in commercial apiaries. To date, there have been no reports of colony deaths attributable to the disease. It is possible that the naturally occurring diet in the Yucatan Peninsula sustains honey bee health. We tested this hypothesis by evaluating the effect of four diets – bee bread collected in the Yucatan's rainy and dry seasons, sucrose syrup, and a pollen substitute – on the response of caged Africanized honey bees (A. m. scutellata × A. m. adansonii × A. mellifera) to nosemosis infection (treatment with spores of Nosema apis Zander and Nosema ceranae Fries). We found that infected and uninfected bees consumed food in similar amounts regardless of the diet, although, overall, they fed at significantly lower rates when provided the pollen-substitute diet. Bees fed either of the bee bread diets had relatively low fat-body weight and expression of Vg, proPO, and GOx genes, three genes related to immune function. Bees fed sucrose syrup had low fat-body weight but relatively high gene expression. Infection from Nosema spores only reduced the individual survival probability for bees fed the bee bread collected in the dry season, yet bees fed the dry-season bee bread had the lowest infection rates. Our results indicate that natural stored bee bread in honey bee colonies from the Yucatan Peninsula could be one of the main factors influencing their survival and reducing Nosema spp. spore load.

Prospects, challenges and perspectives in harnessing natural selection to solve the 'varroa problem' of honey bees.

Honey bees, Apis mellifera, of European origin are major pollinators of crops and wild flora. Their endemic and exported populations are threatened by a variety of abiotic and biotic factors. Among the latter, the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor is the most important single cause behind colony mortality. The selection of mite resistance in honey bee populations has been deemed a more sustainable solution to its control than varroacidal treatments. Because natural selection has led to the survival of some European and African honey bee populations to V. destructor infestations, harnessing its principles has recently been highlighted as a more efficient way to provide honey bee lineages that survive infestations when compared with conventional selection on resistance traits against the parasite. However, the challenges and drawbacks of harnessing natural selection to solve the varroa problem have only been minimally addressed. We argue that failing to consider these issues could lead to counterproductive results, such as increased mite virulence, loss of genetic diversity reducing host resilience, population collapses or poor acceptance by beekeepers. Therefore, it appears timely to evaluate the prospects for the success of such programmes and the qualities of the populations obtained. After reviewing the approaches proposed in the literature and their outcomes, we consider their advantages and drawbacks and propose perspectives to overcome their limitations. In these considerations, we not only reflect on the theoretical aspects of host-parasite relationships but also on the currently largely neglected practical constraints, that is, the requirements for productive beekeeping, conservation or rewilding objectives. To optimize natural selection-based programmes towards these objectives, we suggest designs based on a combination of nature-driven phenotypic differentiation and human-directed selection of traits. Such a dual strategy aims at allowing field-realistic evolutionary approaches towards the survival of V. destructor infestations and the improvement of honey bee health.

Breeding status of invasive Rose-ringed Parakeets Psittacula krameri in Durban, South Africa

The Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri has established feral populations in South African suburban areas. However, the information on the breeding biology of parakeets remains poorly documented in the country. We assessed parakeets’ breeding status and behaviour by locating their roost and breeding sites in Durban, eThekwini Metropole, KwaZulu-Natal province. We also placed artificial nest boxes to determine the occupancy of parakeets or other bird species. We identified 39 parakeet breeding sites with a total of 72 nests. There were no significant differences between the number of active parakeet nests in the first (n = 53 nests) and second breeding seasons (n = 59). Rose-ringed Parakeets used four tree species for nesting, with the white milkwood Sideroxylon inerme used the most (71%). Only East African lowland honey bees Apis mellifera scutellata and Common Mynas Acridotheres tristis used the artificial nest boxes. Parakeet fledgings recorded ranged between one and three per nest, and their numbers differed significantly between seasons. The number of fledglings was not influenced by any of the tree variables measured and distance or location. The distance between the parakeets’ roosting and breeding sites ranged from 1.43 to 5.0 km. Our study provides essential data for an overall management strategy, including eradication programs for this species in South Africa.

Complete Genome Sequence of an African Raw Honey Bacterial Isolate, Bacillus safensis Strain AHB11.

We present the complete genome sequence of Bacillus safensis strain AHB11, which was isolated from African raw honey from Kajo Keji, South Sudan, that had been purchased from a third-party vendor. The genome is composed of a 3,697,357-bp chromosome and a 7,105-bp plasmid, collectively encompassing 3,699 predicted protein-coding sequences and 110 RNA genes.

Complete Genome Sequence of Bacillus safensis Strain AHB2, Isolated from African Raw Honey from Kajo Keji, South Sudan.

We report the complete genome sequence of Bacillus safensis strain AHB2, isolated from African raw honey originating in Kajo Keji, South Sudan, and purchased from a third-party vendor. The genome consists of 3,785,324 bp encompassing 3,774 predicted protein-coding sequences and 183 RNA genes.

Pollination potential of African honey bees, Apis mellifera (litorea): (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in sunflower, Helianthus annuus production in South-Eastern Tanzania

Sunflower, Helianthus annuus, is one of the major cash crops in Tanzania. Despite the importance of the crop, its productivity is still low. In that respect, farmers have been experiencing poor seed-set in sunflowers leading to recorded lower yields. The introduction of honey bees, Apis mellifera, in sunflower production has for a long time been considered an effective strategy for improving sunflower productivity; however, studies on the potential of this phenomenon particularly in Tanzania have been limited. We conducted experiments between July and December 2019 in Mtwara Tanzania, to investigate the potential of honey bees in improving sunflower production. Findings revealed that the weight of sunflower seeds per head in the plots colonized with honey bees was 32.15 g, accounting for three and half times higher than the case without any pollinators (9.41 g). We recorded a significantly (Kruskal-Wallis Test H = 25.81, χ2 prob = p < 0.001) higher 1000-sunflower seed weight of 53.68 g for plots with honey bees vis-a-vis plots with other pollination treatments (wild pollinators = 42.07 g, without pollinators 29.51 g). The percentage of chaffiness was lower in the plots with managed honey bees and wild pollination, accounting for a reduction of 28.25% (for managed honey bees only) and 16.68% (for wild pollination) as compared to plots without pollinators. Therefore, the study results revealed that pollination services from managed honey bees are the appropriate strategies that can contribute to the improvement of sunflower productivity. Further studies based on different agroecological conditions are recommended.

Thermal limits of Africanized honey bees are influenced by temperature ramping rate but not by other experimental conditions

Interest in assessing the critical thermal limits of bees is rapidly increasing, as these physiological traits are good predictors of bees' potential responses to extreme temperature changes, which is relevant in the context of global climate change. However, estimates of thermal limits may be influenced by several factors and published studies differ in experimental methods and conditions, such as the rate of temperature change (ramping rate) and feeding status, which might yield inaccurate predictions and limit comparisons across taxa and regions. Using Africanized honey bees as a model organism, we assessed the effect of ramping rate (0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0 and 1.5 °C min−1) and length of starvation (recently fed vs. fasted for 6, 12, and 18 h) on foragers’ lower (CTMin) and upper (CTMax) thermal limits, as well as the effect of cold stress on CTMax. In addition, we evaluated the two approaches currently used to assess CTMax with a water bath: floating or submerging the testing vials in the bath. We found that critical thermal limits were influenced by ramping rates but not by the other assessed experimental conditions. On average, at ramping rates faster than 0.5 °C min−1, bees displayed a CTMin 1.1–2.6 °C lower and a CTMax 5.3–6.9 °C higher than those of the slowest ramping rate. We discuss the implications of these results and provide suggestions for future thermal studies on bees.

Detection of honey bee viruses in apiaries in Southern Brazil through two standardized multiplex RT-PCR

Viruses are responsible for several diseases in animals and have also been linked to the drastic decrease in the number of bee hives worldwide. Considering the necessity to diagnose honey bee viruses, we developed and standardized two multiplex RT-PCRs. We evaluated the presence of six viruses described in Africanized Apis mellifera bees: Deformed wing virus (DWV), Sacbrood bee virus (SBV), Acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV), Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV), Black queen cell virus (BQCV), and Chronic bee paralysis virus (CBPV). Therefore, 164 samples of honey bees were collected in 27 apiaries of 12 municipalities in the states of Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina, in southern Brazil. Among the 12 municipalities evaluated, five presented positive samples for BQCV, ABPV and DWV. Cases of co-infection by ABPV and BQCV and BQCV and DWV were observed in both states. In all apiaries with positive samples for viruses, Varroa destructor mite was reported or found. These results demonstrate the high occurrence of BQCV (36%) and the presence of ABPV (3%) and DWV (1%) in apiaries in Rio Grande do Sul, as well as in an apiary in Santa Catarina (75% BQCV and 12% DWV). The results confirm the circulation of these viruses in adult Africanized honey bees in southern Brazil, a factor that may be involved with the decline in the number of honey bees in this region of the country.

Larval Exposure to Parasitic Varroa destructor Mites Triggers Specific Immune Responses in Different Honey Bee Castes and Species.

Innate immune systems are key defenses of animals and particularly important in species that lack the sophisticated adaptive immune systems as found in vertebrates. Here, we were interested to quantify variation in innate immune responses of insects in hosts that differ in their parasite susceptibility. To do this, we studied immune responses in honey bees, which can host a remarkable number of different parasites, which are major contributors of declining bee health and colony losses. The most significant parasite of honey bees is the mite Varroa destructor, which has infested the majority of global honey bee populations, and its control remains a major challenge for beekeepers. However, a number of nonmanaged honey bees seem able to control Varroa infections, for example, the Eastern honey bee Apis ceranacerana or the African honey bee Apis mellifera scutellata. These bees therefore make interesting study subjects to identify underlaying resistance traits, for example, by comparing them to more susceptible bee genotypes such as Western honey bees (A. melliferaligustica). We conducted a series of interlinked experiments and started with behavioral assays to compare the attractiveness of bee larvae to mites using different honey bee genotypes and castes. We found that 6-day-old larvae are always most attractive to mites, independently of genotype or castes. In a next step, we compared volatile profiles of the most attractive larvae to test whether they could be used by mites for host selection. We found that the abundance of volatile compounds differed between larval ages, but we also found significant differences between genotypes and castes. To further study the expected underlaying physiological differences between potentially resistant and susceptible host larvae, we compared the larval hemolymph proteomes of the three honey bee genotypes and two castes in response to mite exposure. We identified consistent upregulation of immune and stress-related genes in Varroa-exposed larvae, which differed between genotypes and castes. Tolerant honey bee castes and genotypes were characterized by stronger or more distinct immune esponses. In summary, we provide first insights into the complex involvement of the innate immune system of tolerant honey bees against mite infestations, which could be used for future breeding purposes.

Apis mellifera capensis larvae show low resistance to a highly virulent Paenibacillus larvae field strain

American foulbrood (AFB) poses a serious threat to honey bees worldwide. Clinical signs of AFB were first detected in South Africa in 2008 and are currently confined to the Western Cape, an area inhabited by A. m. capensis. The virulence of isolated AFB field strains and the resistance of A. m. capensis larvae to these field strains were investigated. We individually infected larvae in full-sized A. m. capensis colonies with different doses of the ERIC I, subtype Ab field strain of P. larvae identified from colonies in the Western Cape and assessed larval mortality over 14 days. We compared larval mortality in colonies from a previously AFB-exposed A. m. capensis population to larval mortality in colonies from a non-AFB exposed population. The field strain tested was highly virulent, with the LD50 found to be less than a single spore per larva in both populations, with there being no statistical difference between the populations in larval mortality rates. Our results indicate that once infected with AFB, both A. m. capensis populations responded similarly to the infection and the larvae from both populations showed low resistance to AFB. This indicates that the limited impact of AFB throughout Africa is not due to the direct resistance of larvae to AFB infection, but rather to other factors such as colony-level resistance resulting from highly developed hygienic behaviour, the dispersed nature of beekeeping in Africa, and the swarming/absconding nature intrinsic in African honey bees.

Colonisation of small artificial nest boxes by African honey bees (Apis mellifera scutellata) along the southern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania

Colonisation of small artificial nest boxes by African honey bees <i>(Apis mellifera scutellata)</i> along the southern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania