African Cereals Research Articles

How does virtual water influence the water stress pattern in Africa? A research perspective from the perspectives of production and trade

Northern Africa has become the first region in the world to exhaust its water resources, with a 40 % decrease in per capita water availability south of the Sahara over the past decade. While adjusting production structures and consumption can regulate the supply-demand dynamics of water resources, the extent of the impact of virtual water-induced pressure on both the regional and national levels in Africa remains largely understudied. Applying the standard Penman formula, this research calculates the water footprint of eight cereal crops in 54 African countries from 1990 to 2021. By integrating corresponding data on cereal trade, the study analyzes changes in virtual water stress. The findings indicate a decline in the per-unit production and consumption water footprints for African cereals. However, the continuous expansion of cultivation areas contributes to a rising water stress. In comparison to 1990, the water stress for soybeans, sorghum, rice, maize, and cassava increased by 149.72 %, 146.88 %, 133.89 %, 123.30 %, and 90.8 %, respectively, in 2021. Only barley showed a reduction in water stress by 23.22 %. The study underscores the growing interconnectedness of virtual water trade (VWT) among African nations from 1990 to 2021, leading to a more balanced trade distribution. VWT has reduced water stress by 7.65 %, 2.08 %, and 1.8 % in Western, Central, and Northern Africa, respectively, while increasing pressure in Southern and Eastern Africa by 10.51 % and 1.01 %. The flow of virtual water in Africa is most influenced by spatial proximity, primarily occurring between adjacent countries or regions. Forecasts for water stress under the five scenarios of SSPs-RCP8.5 have been conducted, revealing a continuous increase in water stress across Africa. Furthermore, analysis of the SSP2-RCP8.5 scenario indicates that by 2030 and 2040, African cereal crops are projected to face virtual water resource stress increases of 7 % and 18.76 %, respectively, compared to 2020 levels. During the same period, Sierra Leone is anticipated to experience a growth rate in virtual water stress of approximately 1903.38 %. Consequently, altering crop cultivation structures and enhancing VWT are poised to alleviate water resource pressure, promoting the scientific management of agricultural water resources in Africa.

Techno-Functional and Gelling Properties of Acha (Fonio) (Digitaria exilis stapf) Flour: A Study of Its Potential as a New Gluten-Free Starch Source in Industrial Applications

Fonio (Digitaria exilis Stapf) is an ancient African cereal that represents a rich source of carbohydrate, fat, fiber, vitamins, minerals, and sulfur-containing amino acids. Processing and utilization of fonio require adequate knowledge of its structural, chemical, and nutritional characteristics. The present work evaluates the structural, techno-functional, and gelling properties of fonio and compares them to other major gluten-free cereals (rice, maize, sorghum, and millet). Fonio flour presented significantly higher water absorption index and swelling power, while it scored a lower water solubility index than the reference flours. The pasting viscosity profile of fonio was similar to that of rice, with equivalent peak viscosity but a breakdown viscosity 24% lower than rice, indicative of higher stability and resistance to shearing and heating. Rheological properties demonstrated that fonio generates gels with remarkably strong structures. At 15% concentration, fonio gel withstood stress 579% higher than those observed in the reference flours without breaking its structure. Fonio flour presented the highest gelatinization enthalpy (11.45 J/g) and a narrow gelatinization temperature range (9.96 °C), indicative of a better-packed starch structure than the other analyzed flours. The texture of the gels made with fonio showed higher firmness over the evaluated period. These combined results suggest that fonio is a suitable ingredient for gel-like food formulations.

The Road to Sorghum Domestication: Evidence From Nucleotide Diversity and Gene Expression Patterns.

Native African cereals (sorghum, millets) ensure food security to millions of low-income people from low fertility and drought-prone regions of Africa and Asia. In spite of their agronomic importance, the genetic bases of their phenotype and adaptations are still not well-understood. Here we focus on Sorghum bicolor, which is the fifth cereal worldwide for grain production and constitutes the staple food for around 500 million people. We leverage transcriptomic resources to address the adaptive consequences of the domestication process. Gene expression and nucleotide variability were analyzed in 11 domesticated and nine wild accessions. We documented a downregulation of expression and a reduction of diversity both in nucleotide polymorphism (30%) and gene expression levels (18%) in domesticated sorghum. These findings at the genome-wide level support the occurrence of a global reduction of diversity during the domestication process, although several genes also showed patterns consistent with the action of selection. Nine hundred and forty-nine genes were significantly differentially expressed between wild and domesticated gene pools. Their functional annotation points to metabolic pathways most likely contributing to the sorghum domestication syndrome, such as photosynthesis and auxin metabolism. Coexpression network analyzes revealed 21 clusters of genes sharing similar expression patterns. Four clusters (totaling 2,449 genes) were significantly enriched in differentially expressed genes between the wild and domesticated pools and two were also enriched in domestication and improvement genes previously identified in sorghum. These findings reinforce the evidence that the combined and intricated effects of the domestication and improvement processes do not only affect the behaviors of a few genes but led to a large rewiring of the transcriptome. Overall, these analyzes pave the way toward the identification of key domestication genes valuable for genetic resources characterization and breeding purposes.

Propriétés nutritionnelles et plausibles bienfaits du mil perlé (Pennisetum glaucum) sur le métabolisme osseux et l'ostéo-immunologie: une mini-revue

Bone is a hard connective tissue that undergoes a systematic renewal. This highly dynamic organ is made up of four different types of cells, however, bone formation is commonly attributed to osteoblasts and bone resorption to osteoclasts. Bone tissue formation occurs during embryonic development and in certain post-birth pathological conditions. The immune system could influence the functions of bone cells, and the crosstalk between hematopoietic, immune, and bone cells is known as osteoimmunology. Indeed, cytokines produced by immune cells, including TNF-α and IL-6, are critically implicated in bone pathogenesis. It is well established that diet plays an important role in bone health and function. Indeed, an antioxidant nutraceuticals-rich diet, of which pearl millet is one, can be effective in treating osteoporosis. Pearl millet (PM) is an African native cereal that constitutes the staple food for African Sahel region inhabitants as well as for many peoples in rural regions in India. Pearl millet grains’ content in amino acids, minerals, and phytochemicals may contribute to promoting bone health and metabolism. Accordingly, in the current review, we discuss the putative effects of PM nutrients, with a focus on polyphenols, bone metabolism and osteoimmunology. In the light of our previous studies and others from the literature, we suggest that PM whole grains can be effective in the prevention and management of bone pathogenesis. Keywords: PM whole grains, nutrients, polyphenols, osteoblasts, osteoclasts, osteoimmunology, TNF-α.

Microbial diversity and pasting properties of finger millet (Eleusine coracana), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) sourdoughs

Indigenous grains for food production have the potential to combat food insecurity and poverty in Africa. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of sourdough fermentation on the acidity, microbiological quality, microbial diversity and rheological properties of three underutilized African cereals. The sourdoughs had pH ranging from 3.9 to 4.1. Finger millet and pearl millet sourdoughs had LAB counts >7 log cfu g−1 indicating they are suitable for use as starter culture(s). Microbial diversity was determined using culture dependent techniques and the identity of isolates was established using 16S rRNA gene sequencing. This showed the presence of Bacillus, Brevibacillus, Acinetobacter and Pediococcus species in the sourdoughs. An occurrence of Candida glabrata was observed in finger millet sourdough. Sourdough fermentation resulted in significant increases (p < 0.05) in the peak, trough and final viscosity of pearl millet and sorghum. A lower setback in the three samples indicated improved shelf-life. Starter culture(s) were identified that might be used in the production of gluten-free baked foods as a result of sourdough fermentation.

Influence of fermentation and other processing steps on the folate content of a traditional African cereal-based fermented food

Folate deficiency can cause a number of diseases including neural tube defects and megaloblastic anemia, and still occurs in both developed and developing countries. Cereal-based food products are staple foods in many countries, and may therefore be useful sources of folate. The production of folate by microorganisms has been demonstrated in some cereal-based fermented foods, but has never been studied in a traditional African cereal based food spontaneously fermented. The microbiota of ben-saalga, a pearl-millet based fermented porridge frequently consumed in Burkina Faso, has a good genetic potential for the synthesis of folate, but the folate content of ben-saalga is rather low, suggesting that folate is lost during the different processing steps. The aim of this study was therefore to monitor changes in folate content during the different steps of preparing ben-saalga, from pearl-millet grains to porridge. Traditional processing involves seven different steps: washing, soaking, grinding, kneading, sieving, (spontaneous) fermentation, and cooking. Two type of porridge were prepared, one using a process adapted from the traditional process, the other a modified process based on fermentation by backslopping. Dry matter and total folate contents were measured at each step, and a mass balance assessment was performed to follow folate losses and gains. Folate production was observed during the soaking of pearl-millet grains (+26% to +79%), but the folate content of sieved batters (2.5 to 3.4μg/100g fresh weight) was drastically lower than that of milled soaked grains (17.3 to 19.4μg/100g FW). The final folate content of the porridges was very low (1.5 to 2.4μg/100g FW). The fermentation had no significant impact on folate content, whatever the duration and the process used. This study led to a better understanding of the impact on folate of the different processing steps involved in the preparation of ben-saalga.

The Political Ecology of Plantations from the Ground Up

ABSTRACTLittle work has been done to examine the political ecology and environmental legacy of sugar colonies in the Caribbean. Material excavated from the Morne Patate plantation in southern Dominica occupied from the late seventeenth to mid-nineteenth century offer a perfect opportunity to examine the intersections between Caribbean colonial enterprises and the domestic economises of enslaved households. Analysis of macrobotanical remains associated with the houses, gardens, and provision grounds of the enslaved inhabitants at Morne Patate reveal a mixture of African, American, and European cereals, fruits, and vegetables. Maize (Zea mays) dominates the assemblage, and the recovery of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and millet (Pennisetum glaucum) indicate a concern with high yield cereals and perhaps experimentation with producing crops in a range of local microenvironments. Remains of several coffee cherries (Coffea sp.) from a household context suggest that the enslaved inhabitants at Morne Patate were producing some amount of coffee either for personal consumption or possibly for sale at local markets.

The pattern of Neolithization in Dakhleh Oasis in the Eastern Sahara

The Neolithic, characterized by V.G. Childe as a critical turning point in the human chronicle, entailed a major economic change, the domestication of plants and animals, plus accompanying changes in settlement patterns, technologies and ideology. Once fully developed in the Near East, it was spread to Europe and a few spots on the North African coast by colonists carrying the full ‘Neolithic package’. But for most of North Africa, Neolithization consisted of indigenous groups choosing elements of the Neolithic package most appropriate to the local environment. In northeastern Africa, colonies with the full package may have been established at Merimde in the Nile Delta, and perhaps in the Fayum, but beyond that, the spread seems to have been by cultural diffusion. For the Egyptian Western Desert, the evidence from Dakhleh Oasis suggests that livestock, which arrived independently of the rest of the package, was the only element of the Near Eastern Neolithic to be accepted. Otherwise, the post-Pleistocene adaptation seems to have been an indigenous development, rooted in the local natural environment. This environment was basically a desert, better-watered in the early to mid-Holocene, but even then subject to short arid episodes. Subsistence consisted of hunting and intensively exploiting rich stands of wild African cereals such as sorghum, plus legumes and fruits. ‘Neolithic’ technologies were developed locally, independently of the Near East, to exploit these resources. Pottery with impressed decoration, for instance, appeared in the southern part of the desert at the beginning of the Holocene, and gradually moved northward into the Egyptian desert where it may have inspired a new undecorated pottery tradition. Bifacially-knapped implements like arrowheads and knives are different enough from their Near Eastern equivalents in form, dimensions and production sequences that they arguably were developed locally, starting in the early-Holocene. Dakhleh witnessed two episodes of increased sedentism, one in the early Holocene in response to an arid episode, the second in the mid-Holocene, under quite favourable rainfall conditions. These episodes transformed the original hunter–gatherer groups socially and ideologically to the point where they could readily accept livestock when it arrived, and started them on the road to increased social complexity. The onset of aridification ca. 7250 cal BP forced the oasis-dwellers out of their settled sites. The flocks and herds of the now-mobile groups remained, in the African pattern, a relatively minor element within a multi-resource pastoralism.

ACHA: A Potential Grain as a Food Fortifier

Acha (Fonio), in particular, is sometimes regarded as “the grain of life” due to the fact that it provides food early in the farming season, when other crops are yet to mature for harvest. West Africans have cultivated it across the dry Savannas and it is probably one of the oldest African cereals which have been in existence for thousands of years. In Nigeria, Acha (Fonio) products are recommended as choice sources of carbohydrate for diabetic patients. Today, it is the most expensive grain crop in Nigeria, providing resource for poor farmers and alleviating poverty. The possibility of Acha (Fonio) (which is light and easy to digest) been included in many different cereal based recipes, is not farfetched, thus making it an attractive ingredient for health food products usable by those with gluten intolerance, poor health or for baby food. Acha (Fonio) contains 7% crude protein which is high in Leucine (9.8%) Methionine (5.6%) and Valine (5.5%). The protein in the crop is reported to be unique; in that it has greater methionine content than other cereals. It is reputed to contain almost twice as much methionine as egg protein does. It is on this premise that the potential of the crop as a food fortifier is been looked into due to its very important possibility of its use not only as survival food, but as a complement for standard diets.

Relative severity of fumonisin contamination of cereal crops in West Africa

Traditional and improved varieties of maize, pearl millet and sorghum were planted by small-scale farmers under the direction of the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture in two Nigerian agro-ecological zones: the Sudan Savanna and the Northern Guinea Savanna. Samples were collected for the determination of Fusarium infection and fumonisin (B1, B2 and B3) contamination. A previous paper reported Aspergillus infection and aflatoxin contamination of these samples. Fusarium infection levels, measured by per cent kernels infected, were modest with mean levels for the above cereals of 16% ± 11% (SD), 12% ± 7% and 13% ± 16%, respectively. However, the Fusarium species recovered from maize were predominantly the fumonisin producers F. verticillioides and F. proliferatum, together making an infection rate of 15% ± 10%, whereas these species were present to a limited extent only in the other two cereals, 1% ± 1% for pearl millet and 2% ± 6% for sorghum. Fumonisin contamination was variable but reflected the diversity of Fusarium producers in these three cereals. Mean levels were 228 ± 579 µg kg–1 (range < 5–2860 µg kg–1) for maize, 18 ± 7 µg kg–1 (range = 6–29 µg kg–1) for pearl millet and 131 ± 270 µg kg–1 (range < 5–1340 µg kg–1) for sorghum. Together with previous results on aflatoxin, this study confirmed the co-occurrence of aflatoxins and fumonisins in maize as well as in the traditional African cereals, millet and sorghum (89% co-occurrence across all three cereals). The low fumonisin levels may be ascribed to the use of good agricultural practices. Of the Fusarium species present, those in maize consisted mainly of fumonisin producers, the opposite of what was observed in pearl millet and sorghum. It is concluded that replacement of maize by pearl millet and sorghum could improve food safety with regards to aflatoxin B and fumonisin B exposure.

Grass inflorescence phytoliths of useful species and wild cereals from sub-Saharan Africa

Dendritic phytoliths that precipitate in grass inflorescences are often used in archaeology to trace the use of cereals (i.e. grasses harvested for their edible grain) and their domestication by early human societies. High amounts of these morphotypes are sometimes interpreted in terms of cereal accumulation in archaeological contexts. In sub-Saharan Africa, few cereals were domesticated during the mid-Holocene, but many wild grasses are still largely harvested by modern societies for food. The harvesting of wild cereals is also considered as one of the first stages toward early grass domestication. To evaluate how well dendritic phytoliths and/or other phytoliths produced in the grass inflorescences could help trace the use of wild cereal grains in sub-Saharan Africa, we analyzed the phytolith content of 67 African species (including 20 wild cereals), and 56 modern soils. We used test-value analysis and ANOVA to evaluate how well grass inflorescences could be distinguished from leaf/culm parts based on their phytolith content. We also measured the abundances of these phytoliths in natural soils from sub-Saharan Africa to provide a benchmark percentage abundance above which anthropogenic accumulation may be suspected in archaeological deposits. Our results confirm that, although rondel type phytoliths are abundant, only the dendritic phytolith morphotype is exclusive to the grass inflorescences. Yet, dendritic phytoliths do not occur in all species. They happen to be most frequent and found in greatest abundance (>34% relative to total phytolith count) in Panicoideae grasses (Sehima ischaemoides, Sorghastrum stipoides, and Sorghum purpureo-sericeum), and in one Eragrostideae species (Eragrostis squamata), which are not considered cereals. Inflorescences of the wild African cereals studied here do not happen to be particularly rich in dendritics (<7% in average). Finally, dendritics are rare in modern natural soils (<1% relative to total phytolith count, <3% relative to sum of grass silica short cells plus dendritics), even under stands of rich dendritic producers. We conclude that dendritic phytoliths may be used for tracing remarkable deposits of grass inflorescences at archaeological sites in sub-Saharan Africa, but are not exclusive to domesticated or wild cereals. Abundances of dendritics >>3% relative to sum of grass silica short cell phytoliths plus dendritics are likely to indicate anthropogenic accumulation of grass inflorescences. Yet, the absence or low abundance of dendritic phytoliths in archaeological deposits may not always indicate the absence of anthropogenic accumulation of grass inflorescence material.

Effect of steeping additives on tef starch extraction and its quality

AbstractTef is an indigenous African cereal and considered as lost crop of Africa. There is no research on the effect of steeping additives on the quality of isolated tef starch. A white tef grain was milled and steeped in distilled water, sodium hydroxide, lactic acid, metabisulfite, and a combination of lactic acid and metabisulfite. A combination of metabisulfite and lactic acid improves the starch yield, but steeping with sodium hydroxide produces the highest starch purity (lowest protein content). Both the Rapid Visco Analyzer and a Rheometer showed similar pasting properties of starches independent of the treatment. The different steeping additives showed differences in pasting properties. Sodium hydroxide showed the highest peak, breakdown and set back viscosity compared to the other steeping additives. Extracted tef starches using sodium hydroxide as steeping additives also showed higher gelatinization temperatures. According to principle component analysis (PCA), the different properties of tef starch extracted with sodium hydroxide steeping is apparently due to its lower protein content. SEM and CLSM indicated that sodium hydroxide is a very effective solvent to solubilize the protein matrix surrounding the compound starch granule to produce more single starch granule during extraction. The low protein content probably result in faster water absorption and higher peak viscosity and lower pasting temperature. Different steeping additives can affect the functionality of tef starches and this need to be considered when comparing properties of starches extracted with different additives.

Effect of cooking on the total antioxidant capacity and phenolic profile of some whole‐meal African cereals

At present, sorghum, fonio and millet are not placed as important commodities in the North American and European food basket, but their importance as ingredients in multigrain and gluten-free cereal products is highlighted. Therefore in this study the phenolic profile (evaluated by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry), total phenolic content (assessed by Folin-Ciocalteu assay) and total antioxidant capacity were measured in three African whole grains, i.e. sorghum (Sorghum bicolor ssp. bicolor), fonio (Digitaria exilis) and pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.), before and after a cooking procedure. After the cooking process, soluble phenolic acids increased significantly in sorghum, whereas bound ones and anthocyanins decreased significantly. In millet the cooking process significantly enhanced soluble phenolic acids without affecting those bound, whereas in fonio a slight but significant decrease in almost all soluble phenolic acids was observed along with a significant increase in bound ones. Finally, the cooking process negatively affected both total phenolic content and total antioxidant capacity. This is one of the few reports dealing with the antioxidant compounds of these three African whole grains in which the effect of cooking was also evaluated. The data suggested that, to improve their antioxidant properties, specific cultivars should be selected and the cooking procedures carefully considered.

Utilization of African Grains for Sourdough Bread Making

Acha and Iburu flours were singly subjected to sourdough fermentation with previously selected autochthonous starters. Sourdoughs were used (30%, wt/wt) as aroma carriers and acidifiers during short time fermentation with the addition of baker's yeast. Acha and Iburu sourdough breads were compared to wheat sourdough bread started with the same strains and to breads made with the same formula but using baker's yeast alone. During Acha and Iburu sourdough fermentations, starter lactic acid bacteria reached almost the same cell density found in wheat sourdoughs. Acidification was more intense. Iburu sourdough bread had the highest total titratable acidity, the lowest pH, and contained the highest levels of free amino acids and phytase activity. The values of in vitro protein digestibility did not differ between Acha sourdough and wheat sourdough breads, while Iburu sourdough bread showed a slightly lower value. Acha and Iburu sourdough breads showed lower specific volume and higher density with respect to wheat sourdough breads. Nevertheless, Acha and Iburu sourdough breads were preferred for hardness and resilience. As shown by sensory analysis, Acha and especially Iburu sourdough breads were appreciated for color, acid taste and flavor, and overall acceptability. This study was aimed at evaluating the technological and nutritional properties of the African cereals Acha and Iburu. Sourdough fermentation and the use of selected starters increased the nutritional and sensory qualities and the potential application for bakery industry.

Companion Cropping to Manage Parasitic Plants

Parasitic plants, through a range of infestation strategies, can attack crop plants and thereby require management. Because such problems often occur in resource-poor farming systems, companion cropping to manage parasitic plants is an appropriate approach. Many examples of companion cropping for this purpose have been reported, but the use of cattle forage legumes in the genus Desmodium as intercrops has been shown to be particularly successful in controlling the parasitic witchweeds (Striga spp.) that afflict approximately one quarter of sub-Saharan African cereal production. Through the use of this example, the development of effective companion crops is described, together with developments toward widespread adoption and understanding the underlying mechanisms, both for sustainability and ensuring food security, and also for exploitation beyond the cropping systems described here.

Griddles, Ovens, and Agricultural Origins: An Ethnoarchaeological Study of Bread Baking in Highland Ethiopia

An ethnoarchaeological study of highland Ethiopian griddle technology is compared to bread‐baking technologies in Africa and the Near East. There is a functional relationship between the use of ovens and griddles and the presence or absence of gluten in bread ingredients. Ovens are most appropriate for cereals containing gluten and may be implicated in the selection of higher quality gluten in domesticated wheats. We conclude, based on evidence for griddle use and the performance characteristics of African cereals, that indigenous species were exploited in highland Ethiopia before Near Eastern cereals were introduced. Griddle‐cooking practices that bias the preservation of Near Eastern cereals over African ones may explain the absence of African cereals in the early archaeobotanical record. [Keywords: Ethiopia, ethnoarchaeology, archaeobotany, ovens, griddles]

Éclatement et incomplétude de la théorie des marchés

In the economic literature, markets are analyzed in very different ways. A review shows that there are basically three approaches. Each one encompasses only a part of market institutions and uses a specific critérium of assessment This paper underspins some complementarities which advocate for a more unified theory that unables a better evaluation of market institutions performance and an improvement of their design. Examples from a literature survey and our research on african cereals markets help to illustrate this argument.

Effect of cooking and irradiation on the labile vitamins and antinutrient content of a traditional African sorghum porridge and spinach relish

Irradiation is a potentially useful technology for ensuring the safety and extending the shelf-life of food products in Africa. However, nutritional changes may result. The effects of cooking followed by irradiation (10 kGy) on vitamins B 1 and C, and the antinutritional factors, phytic acid and nitrates, in a ready-to-eat meal of sorghum porridge and spinach-based relish were investigated. Cooking reduced vitamin B 1 and C contents of the spinach relish, and irradiation caused further losses. Cooking did not alter vitamin B 1 content of the sorghum porridge but irradiation decreased it drastically. Cooking did not decrease phytic acid in the sorghum porridge, but irradiation caused a significant decrease. The reduction of antinutritional factors by cooking, followed by irradiation, is promising for the application of this technology to traditional African cereal and leafy vegetable foods. However, ways need to be found to minimise vitamin loss, such as blanching and cooking in minimum water and irradiation at cryogenic temperatures in an oxygen-free atmosphere.

Development and Structure of the Haustorium of the Parasite Rhamphicarpa fistulosa (Scrophulariaceae)

Abstract:Rhamphicarpa fistulosa (Hochst.) Benth. (Scrophulariaceae), a parasite of African cereals, develops secondary haustoria which penetrate the roots of the host plant. Light and electron microscopy have been used to study the structure and development of haustoria in this species, which, until now, have not been well characterized. Haustoria are initiated in the hypodermis of the parasite roots. A meristematic strand is developed between the parasite root stele and the host‐parasite interface. From this strand, cells differentiate into xylem elements after penetration of the host root. Xylem differentiation follows an acropetal pattern. Mature haustoria are characterized by a continuous xylem bridge between water conducting elements of parasite and host. A detailed study of the hostparasite interface revealed the presence of collapsed and compressed host cells at the lateral interface (between parasite cells and host cortex), whereas the central interface between parasite cells and the host stele is almost devoid of host cell remnants. Implications of these observations for the penetration mechanisms are discussed.

Sulfur amino acid-rich proteins in acha (Digitaria exilis), a promising underutilized African cereal

It was previously reported that acha, a promising but underutilized African cereal, is rich in methionine and will make and excellent complement for legumes. Two sulfur amino acid-rich proteins that contribute to this property have now been identified. There phycicochemical and structural properties have been determined