African American Youth Research Articles

The Development of a Brief but Comprehensive Therapeutic Assessment Protocol for the Screening and Support of Youth in the Community to Address the Youth Mental Health Crisis

Objective: The objective of this study was to explore the acceptability and feasibility of a therapeutic assessment protocol for the Screening and Support of Youth (SASY). SASY provides brief but comprehensive community-based screening and support for diverse youth in the community. Methods: SASY screening evaluates symptoms, functioning and clinical risk. The Kiddie Computerized Adaptive Test was used to evaluate seven different diagnoses and symptom severity. The Weiss Functional Impairment Rating Scale-Self was used to measure functional impairment. Measures were scored according to nationally developed norms. An algorithm was developed to aggregate symptom and function ratings into an overall score for clinical risk. The results are discussed with participants in a motivational interview designed to promote insight, followed by the opportunity for the participant to engage in an online intervention. Protocol changes necessitated by social distancing during the pandemic led to innovative methods including the use of a QR code for recruitment, integration of both online and offline participation, and expansion from in-person recruitment within the schools to virtual engagement with youth throughout the community. The final sample included disproportionately more Black or African American and Hispanic youth as compared to school and community statistics, suggesting that optimization of online and offline methods in research may facilitate the recruitment of diverse populations. Qualitative interviews indicated that the screening and feedback raised youth awareness of their wellbeing and/or distress, its impact on their functioning, and engagement with options for improved wellbeing. Conclusions: The emergence of innovative methods optimizing the advantages of both online and offline methods, developed as a necessity during the pandemic, proved advantageous to the feasibility and acceptability of community-based recruitment of at-risk, minoritized youth.

Mother-Child Closeness and Adolescent Structural Neural Networks: A Prospective Longitudinal Study of Low-Income Families.

Mother-child closeness, a mutually trusting and affectionate bond, is an important factor in shaping positive youth development. However, little is known about the neural pathways through which mother-child closeness are related to brain organization. Utilizing a longitudinal sample primarily from low-income families (N=181; 76% African American youth and 54% female), this study investigated the associations between mother-child closeness at ages 9 and 15 and structural connectivity organization (network integration, robustness, and segregation) at age 15. The assessment of mother-child closeness included perspectives from both mother and child. The results revealed that greater mother-child closeness is linked with increased global efficiency and transitivity, but not modularity. Specifically, both the mother's and child's report of closeness at age 15 predicted network metrics but report at age 9 did not. Our findings suggest that mother-child closeness is associated with neural white matter organization, as adolescents who experienced greater mother-child closeness displayed topological properties indicative of more integrated and robust structural networks.

Initial Witnessing on Future Witnessing: A Mediation Analysis of Chronic Community Violence, Post-Traumatic Stress, and Delinquency in Urban, African American Youth.

Witnessing community violence can predict negative mental health outcomes for youth such as post-traumatic stress symptoms and delinquent behavior. Such outcomes differ by gender. Variables that predict witnessing community violence in youth are less understood. This study aims to explore potential pathways between initial witnessing and continued witnessing for early adolescents. The relationship between witnessing as a predictor and witnessing as an outcome is hypothesized to be mediated by both post-traumatic stress and delinquency and moderated by gender. A sample of 153 African American, sixth-grade students (M= 11.65, 59% female) in high crime, high poverty areas completed self-report surveys at baseline, 12 and 24 months. Moderated serial mediation was used to assess longitudinal associations. For the full model, delinquency at Time 3 was associated with a positive change in witnessing at Time 3. Gender moderated several paths. For girls, witnessing at Time 1 was predictive of high post-traumatic stress (aggregate) at Time 2 and high delinquency at Time 3. For girls, witnessing at Time 1 also was predictive of higher hyperarousal and higher intrusion subscale symptoms than other symptoms at Time 2. Analyses also indicated that hyperarousal at Time 2 significantly predicted witnessing at Time 3 for girls only. Lastly, delinquency at Time 3 was associated with a positive change in witnessing at Time 3. For boys, no analyses indicated witnessing at Time 1 as a significant predictor. Results contribute to our understanding of the trajectory of witnessing community violence and the roles both post-traumatic stress subscales and delinquency play in that trajectory, especially among girls.

Ecological Contexts and Suicidality among Marginalized African American Youth

Drawing data from a sample of African American youth and their caregivers, the study investigated youth suicidality in social contexts. Results show that approximately one-seventh of these youth reported suicidality. Multivariate analyses show that depressive symptoms, bullying victimization, exposure to violence, and neglectful parenting were positively linked with a higher risk of suicidality, whereas receiving public assistance was negatively related to suicidality. The findings suggest the need to assess youth suicidality risk from an ecological perspective. They also necessitate a comprehensive approach to suicide prevention, including strengthening families to enhance child support and care.

Mitigating rACEsm in K-12 Classrooms: The Consideration of Culturally-Informed Adverse Childhood Experiences and Utilization of Culturally Relevant Education and Systemically Trauma-Informed Practice

Forty-six percent of children in the United States experience a potentially traumatic event (PTE), also known as an Adverse Childhood Experience (or ACE), including abuse (physical, sexual, emotional), neglect, and/or household dysfunction (incarceration of a family member, parental mental illness, divorce, etc.) before their 18th birthday. In the United States, 61% of African-American youth experience at least one ACE (more than any other racial or ethnic group), compared with 40% of White children. A culturally informed conceptualization of the ACEs framework (C-ACEs) that considers the effects of historical trauma, racist social conditions, and race-based biological stress on African-American youth is essential. This is particularly important in K-12 Educational institutions for two reasons: (1) Schools are a major environment in which African-American youth are exposed to racial trauma via teachers, peers, policies, and practices within the school itself; (2) Popularity of the “trauma-informed” movement in schools that overemphasizes and overuses the existing ACEs framework (i.e., a “neoliberal biomedical trauma model”) and does not consider larger systems that cause and perpetuate trauma (p. 105). Further, it is essential to review how school teachers, administrators, and staff can amalgamate Systemically Trauma-Informed Practice (SysTIP) with Culturally Relevant Education (CRE) to increase education equity, reduce the trauma of racism experienced within educational spaces, and help ensure that African-American students succeed academically and personally.

Cultivating STEM engagement among African American youth: an exploration of secondary students’ voices

In the United States, individuals who identify as Black are severely underrepresented in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) disciplines. This underrepresentation begins as early as middle school due to the stereotype of successful STEM students being white and male thus affecting Black students sense of belonging in STEM. The goal for this exploratory qualitative study was to understand the experiences of Black students in their science classes. Our choice of focus groups empowered these students, who have historically been missing from educational policy decisions, by providing them an opportunity to be part of the change they want to see in their schools. The results indicate that participants could see potential relevance in science and math classes but the structure of their current science classes (e.g., neglect and lack of care from teachers) affects their ability to actually experience this relevance. Despite this, many of our participants understood their value and believed that they “deserve more,” which shows that we can improve the experiences for Black students in STEM and increase their representation in these disciplines.

Ethnic-Racial Identity, Racial Discrimination and Support for Black Lives Matter among Black American Youth

Ethnic-Racial Identity, Racial Discrimination and Support for Black Lives Matter among Black American Youth

Mental health stigma and service use among Black American youth: A systematic review.

Past research has found that Black children do not obtain mental health services at a rate commensurate with their needs. Additionally, they overall have lower rates of service utilization in comparison to other groups, even when factors such as socioeconomic status are considered. This systematic review aimed to examine the impact of mental health stigma on service utilization within Black families. We conducted a review of qualitative and quantitative studies published from 1990 to 2020 that examined the relationship between mental health stigma and service use and included disaggregated data of Black American youth and/or caregivers as the participants. Twelve articles (six quantitative, four qualitative, and two mixed methods) met the inclusion criteria. We used a narrative synthesis approach to organize and assess the extracted data. Youth reported stigmatizing beliefs about mental health treatment, although their attitudes did not contribute to caregivers' decisions about seeking treatment for them. Caregivers reported an awareness of stigmatizing views being held by others in their communities, but they did not consistently describe these views as impacting their service use decisions. Findings suggest a need for additional research to determine which factors most strongly impact the service use decisions of Black American caregivers. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Psychometric Properties of the Modified Parenting Attitudes Measure Among African American Adolescents in Public Housing

Valid and reliable measurements reflecting how perceived maternal and paternal parenting practices are similar, different, complementary, or additive in studying youth outcomes are critical for building knowledge on supportive parenting practices for African American youth living in public housing. We examined the psychometric properties of the Parental Attitudes Measure (PAM) which focuses on youths’ attitudes on parenting practices. Data was collected from the perspective of 660 African American youth living in urban public housing across three cities in the northeast and mid-Atlantic region in the United States. Youth reported on their attitudes about maternal and paternal caregivers. Reliability was determined using Cronbach alpha (α) for internal consistency. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used to examine the dimensions and loading of the construct with this population. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) examined the validity of the measure using four goodness-of-fit indices. Pearson correlations were used to test construct validity among the sample and across parent status (birth or non-birth parent) and residence in the household. The EFA indicated a two-factor structure with strong reliability for both maternal (α = 0.86, 0.84) and paternal (α = 93, 0.92) encouragement and supervision. The CFA supported a 2-factor model for both maternal and paternal PAM. Findings demonstrate high internal consistency of the PAM for use in examining maternal and paternal attitudes among African American youth living in public housing, generally, as well as by gender and across cities. The measure had good construct validity with maternal caregivers but only partially with paternal caregivers.

“We got to stand up and speak”: Youth in high-poverty, high-crime urban communities of color reflect on their cross-age mentoring program

This project draws from youth voices to develop theory about outcomes and change mechanisms in a cross-age mentoring out of school program with urban African American and Latine youth living in low-income communities. With instructors’ supports, African American and Latine mentors (N = 148, ages 14–20) in four U.S. urban, high-poverty communities of color mentored children weekly for an average of 16 sessions, followed by a debriefing session. Researchers used qualitative, participatory methods to elicit mentor perspectives about what made their program impactful. Diverse qualitative data were collected by staff and youth and analyzed thematically. Outcomes adolescent mentors deemed meaningful were 1) developing good character, specifically persistence, leadership and listening skills, patience, respectful collaborations, goal-oriented hopefulness, and more positive racial identities, and 2) building trustworthy, supportive relationships with mentees, peers, and instructors. Mechanisms mentors regarded as generating outcomes were 1) being active agents in program implementation and evaluation, and also contributing knowledge about themselves, and 2) the fulfillment of caring for community children, which youth regarded as a partial remedy for deprivations and injustices their communities experience. Differences in emphasis based on gender are described. Outcomes and generative mechanisms are discussed in relation to youths’ community cultural wealth. Comprehensively empowering youth to co-lead program development, implementation, evaluation and theorizing can improve the fidelity of scientific knowledge to youths’ strengths and priorities, and yield theories of intervention consonant with youths’ cultural wealth.

The role of affirming faith communities on internalizing symptoms in African American LGBTQ+ emerging adults

African American youth identifying as LGBTQ+ (i.e. lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and other non-heterosexual and/or non-cisgender identities) are often at increased risk to adverse experiences such as discrimination, stigma, and family rejection that impact psychological well-being. A critical protective factor for African Americans facing these difficulties is religiosity, and religiosity typically results in multiple psychological benefits. Given the potential anti-LGBTQ+ attitudes from other congregants in their religious spaces, this protective factor may operate differently for LGBTQ+ African American youth. Using a sample of 156 emerging adults ages 18 to 25 (M age= 18.85; 61.5% having a current religion) self-identified as African American and LGBTQ+, we examined identity processes (i.e. ethnic-racial, LGBTQ+, and religious identity exploration, resolution, and commitment) along with experiences of family rejection and an LGBTQ+ affirming faith community would be associated with depressive and anxious symptoms. Results indicated that attitudinal faith community affirmation was associated with fewer depressive and anxious symptoms, while family rejection was associated with greater depressive and anxious symptoms. Ethnic-racial identity was also associated with greater depressive symptoms. Interpretations of the findings and implications for future research are explored.

The relationship between perceived family support and subclinical positive symptoms of psychosis among Black college students.

Black individuals in the Unites States endure compounded and unique experiences of discrimination and structural racism that may not be as overtly evident in other countries. These distinctive forms of discrimination and racism can impact the mental health of Black individuals in the Unites States, in this case, their risk for psychosis. Adolescence and early adulthood are vulnerable periods in life where mental illness typically begins to manifest. Understanding the factors contributing to an increased likelihood of specific mental illnesses, such as psychosis, among youth in these vulnerable periods can inform intervention development. This is particularly important for those from minoritized backgrounds Unites States; this group is especially important to study given that Black American youth tend to experience higher psychosis rates and different symptom presentations than non-Black groups. This study examined the associations between perceived family support, a critical environmental factor known to be associated with full-psychosis, and attenuated positive symptoms and distress levels in a sample of 155 Black students from a Historically Black College and University (HBCU). Participants completed the Prodromal Questionnaire-Brief that assessed psychosis risk and the Family Environment Scale that assessed three dimensions of family support (family cohesion, expressiveness, and conflict). Positive symptom intensity (r = .30, p < .001) and distress (r = .34, p < .001) were significantly associated with higher family conflict for Black individuals in the Unites States. The findings inform novel intervention targets for psychoeducation and family therapy that have potential to reduce psychosis risk.

Challenges in Evaluating a Community-Level Intervention to Address Root Causes of Youth Violence

Violence disproportionately impacts Black American youth, representing a major health disparity. Addressing the possible root causes of structural inequities to reduce violence may increase the impact of prevention strategies. However, efforts to evaluate the impact of such interventions pose numerous methodological challenges, particularly around selecting an effective evaluation design to detect change at the community level, with adequate power and sampling, and appropriate constructs and measurement strategies. We propose a multiple baseline experimental design to evaluate the impact of a community-level youth violence and suicidality prevention strategy. A multiple baseline experimental design with multiple community units balances the need for scientific rigor with practical and values-based considerations. It includes randomization and plausible counterfactuals without requiring large samples or placing some communities in the position of not receiving the intervention. Considerations related to the conceptualization of the logic model, mechanisms of change, and health disparity outcomes informed the development of the measurement strategy. The strengths and weaknesses of a multiple baseline experimental design are discussed in comparison to versions of randomized clinical trials. Future health disparity intervention evaluation research will benefit from (1) building a shared sense of urgent public need to promote health; (2) respecting the validity of values- and partnership-based decision-making; and (3) promoting community-based and systems-level partnerships in scientific grant funding. The described study has been registered prospectively at clinicaltrials.gov, Protocol Record 21–454.

Do caring teachers protect African American youth with adverse adolescent experiences from risky behaviors?

The current study aims to fill the existing research gaps by investigating the role of teacher care in protecting African American adolescents in under-resourced neighborhoods from negative outcomes of adverse life events. The study included 638 adolescents from four under-resourced neighborhoods in Chicago's Southside who were assessed to determine the moderating role of caring teachers on the relationship between adverse adolescent experiences and risky sexual behaviors, substance use, bullying perpetration, and violent behaviors. Caring teachers had a significant moderating effect on the association between adverse experiences and both bullying perpetration and violent behaviors. Adolescents who perceived their teachers as caring showed lower tendencies towards bullying and violence, even if they had adverse experiences. These results highlight the crucial role of teacher care in supporting African American adolescents from under-resourced neighborhoods who have experienced adverse life events. It emphasizes educators' role in shaping our youth's future, especially those facing adversity and at a crossroads in their lives.

Protective Impact of Future Orientation Domains for African American Youth Exposed to Community Violence

Protective Impact of Future Orientation Domains for African American Youth Exposed to Community Violence

Perceptions of African American Youth and Adults Regarding Tobacco Use-Related Factors in Their Community: A Mixed-Methods Approach in Richmond, Virginia.

The US Food and Drug Administration is poised to restrict the availability of menthol cigarettes and flavored cigars, products disproportionately used by Black/African American (B/AA) individuals. We examined B/AA youth and adult perceptions regarding factors contributing to tobacco use, as well as prevention/cessation resources. In 2 mixed-methods studies in Richmond, Virginia, we conducted cross-sectional surveys among youth (n = 201) and adult (n = 212) individuals who were primarily B/AA and reported past 30-day cigar smoking or nontobacco use, followed by focus groups with a subset (youth: n = 30; adults: n = 24). Focus groups were analyzed using a thematic analysis framework, and descriptive survey data provided context to themes. Among focus group participants, 20% of youth and 75% of adults reported current cigar smoking. Six themes emerged across the groups: advertising/brands, sensory experiences, costs, social factors, youth-related factors, and dependence/cessation. Youth and adults perceived cigars as popular; cigar use was attributed to targeted advertising, flavors, affordability, and accessibility. While adults expressed concern regarding youth tobacco use, youth did not perceive tobacco prevention programs as helpful. Adults and youth reported limited access to community tobacco prevention/cessation programs. Expanded tobacco prevention and cessation resources for B/AA people who smoke could leverage federal regulatory actions to ban tobacco products targeted toward this group and decrease disparities in tobacco-related morbidity and mortality.

The role of Afrocultural ethos in African American youth's emotion skill development

AbstractResearch on African American youth's emotional development provides an incomplete understanding of the cultural influences that shape emotion‐related skills such as emotion expression, regulation, and understanding. In this article, I propose the multiple cultural frameworks of triple quandary theory to characterize the nature of mainstream cultural experiences and minority cultural experiences in current research on emotional development in African American youth. I also discuss Afrocultural ethos as an aspect of African American cultural experiences that shapes African American emotional development, using affect and orality as examples that can be explored and embedded within emotional development research. Finally, I describe important factors for researchers to consider in the study of Afrocultural ethos in affective developmental science.

Cannabis Use and Its Impact on Mental Health in Youth in Australia and the United States: A Scoping Review.

Cannabis is a widely used substance among the youth population, with an estimated 2.8% currently smoking cannabis. Its popularity is growing due to the perception of its harmless nature and lack of dependence. However, this increase in use has been linked to mental health issues, especially since its partial decriminalisation in some part of the United States and Australia. The objective of this scoping review was to investigate the mental health impact of cannabis use among young people in Australia and the United States. A scoping review was conducted according to the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) protocol, and articles were searched from ProQuest Central and EBSCO Host (MEDLINE and CINAHL databases). A total of 24 articles were analysed, including systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and cohort, longitudinal, and cross-sectional studies. The findings indicate that cannabis use is associated with depression, psychosis, suicide, cannabis use disorder, dependence, decline in cognitive function, and the development of externalising behaviour, particularly attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. However, the relationship between cannabis use and anxiety is equivocal. Mental health issues were more prevalent with increased frequency, duration, intensity, and type of use. Female, minority, LGBTQI, African American, Aboriginal, and Torres Strait Islander youth and the age of onset of cannabis use were significant factors for the development of mental health problems. The increasing prevalence of cannabis use among high school and college students suggests the need for intervention by teachers, parents, and community health professionals to make them aware of its potential negative mental health outcomes. Moreover, policy-level interventions by the government are required to discourage young people from using cannabis.

What is Common Becomes Normal; Black-White Variation in the Effects of Adversities on Subsequent Initiation of Tobacco and Marijuana During Transitioning into Adolescence.

While adversities across domains of finance, race, family, and life may operate as risk factors for initiation of substance use in adolescents, the influence of these factors may vary across racial groups of youth. Unfortunately, the existing knowledge is minimal about racial differences in the types of adversities that may increase the risk of subsequent substance use initiation during the transition into adolescence. To compare racial groups for the effects of adversities across domains of finance, race, family, and life on subsequent substance use initiation among pre-adolescents transitioning into adolescence. In this longitudinal study, we analyzed data from 6003 non-Latino White and 1562 non-Latino African American 9-10-year-old children transitioning into adolescence. Data came from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. Participants were followed for up to thirty-six months as they transitioned to adolescence. The independent variables were adversities related to the domains of finance, race, family, and life. The primary outcomes were time to first tobacco or marijuana use. Age, puberty, and gender were confounders. Cox regression models were used for data analysis. For White youth, tobacco use was under influence of having two parents in the household (HR = .611; 95% CI = .419-.891), parental education (HR = .900; 95% CI = .833-.972), household income (HR = .899; 95% CI = .817-.990), racial stress (HR = 1.569; 95% CI = 1.206-2.039), and life stress (HR =1.098 ; 95% CI = 1.024-1.178) and marijuana use was under influence of neighborhood income (HR = .576; 95% CI = .332-.999) and financial stress (HR =4.273; 95% CI = 1.280-17.422). No adverse condition predicted tobacco or marijuana use of African American youth. The effects of adversities on substance use depend on race. While various types of adversities tend to increase subsequent initiation of tobacco and marijuana, such factors may be less influential for African American adolescents, who experience more of such adversities. What is common may become normal.

Projected impact of anti-obesity pharmacotherapy use on racial and ethnic disparities in adolescent obesity.

Paediatric obesity disproportionately impacts individuals from minoritized racial and ethnic backgrounds. Recent guidelines support use of anti-obesity pharmacotherapy for adolescents with obesity, but the potential impact on disparities in obesity prevalence has not been evaluated. To model changes in obesity prevalence with increasing utilization of anti-obesity pharmacotherapy among adolescents. Data representative of American adolescents ages 12-17 years were obtained from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, cycles 2011 through pre-pandemic 2020. A body mass index (BMI) reduction of 16.7% was applied to each participant based on clinical trial results of weekly subcutaneous semaglutide 2.4 mg among adolescents. Utilization disparities were based on utilization of the same medication class among adults. Obesity prevalence was calculated assuming utilization of 10%-100%, stratified by race and ethnicity. Among 4442 adolescents representing 26 247 384 American adolescents, projected overall obesity prevalence decreased from 22.2% to 8.4% with 100% utilization. However, disparities increased relative to Non-Hispanic White youth, with prevalence among Non-Hispanic Black and Mexican American youth ranging from 40%-60% higher to 90%-120% higher, respectively. Increasing utilization of anti-obesity pharmacotherapy may widen relative disparities in obesity, particularly if utilization is unequal. Advocacy for equitable access is needed to minimize worsening of obesity-related disparities.