African American Male Adolescents Research Articles

Efficacy to avoid violence and parenting: A moderated mediation of violence exposure for African American urban-dwelling boys.

We took a risk and resilience approach to investigating how witnessing physical violence influences adolescent violent behaviors overtime. We proposed efficacy to avoid violence as a major path of influence in this negative trajectory of adolescent development. We also focus on the protective roles of parenting behaviors for African American boys living in disadvantaged contexts. Most of our sample of 310 African American adolescent males (M age = 13.50, SD = .620) had experienced significant amounts of violence, but they also reported continued efficacy to avoid violence. We tested a first stage dual moderated mediation model and found that higher levels of witnessing violence lead to more violent behavior and less efficacy to avoid violence, and that efficacy was the mediator in that link. Youth who witness more violence may feel that engagement in violence is inescapable and thus may themselves end up engaging in it. These problematic long-term trajectories were moderated by parent's communication about violence and monitoring revealing possible protections for youth, and an enhancement of youths' internal strengths. Our findings propose pathways that can inform interventions that may protect African American adolescent boys against the vicious cycle of exposure to, and acts of, violence.

Schools as jails: Urban African American Adolescent Males’ (UAAM) experiences and perceptions of violence in low‐income public schools

AbstractThis manuscript presents urban African American adolescent males’ (UAAM) experiences and perceptions of violence in low‐income public schools. Findings derived from a qualitative study that investigated the meanings and experiences of violence among UAAM. Nine and six UAAM participated in in‐depth phenomenological interviews and a focus group, respectively. Findings revealed that UAAM experience and perceive school as a site for criminalizing their behaviors, peer fights, and being undereducated by teachers. Implications for counselors, educators, and service providers are discussed.

An Examination of the Context-Linked Influences on the Achievement Outcomes of African American Male High School Seniors

Abstract Although students must successfully navigate transition years in school in pursuit of sustained academic success, not enough is known about the context-linked experiences of African American male adolescents as they seek to traverse their senior year, one of the most important pivotal points in time for all students. This study examined the relationship between perceptions of support from significant others, exposure to contextual risks, and two achievement outcomes in a representative sample of 139 African American male high school seniors. At this critical juncture in their education career, teacher support was predictive of higher grade point average (GPA), and a specific type of family support was associated with lower GPA. Qualitative analysis revealed similarities and differences in types of support reported to have had an impact on the participants’ success in school. Results from the study confirm one hypothesis that exposure to contextual risks predicts poorer achievement outcomes. Findings affirm the need for tailored interventions that target and strengthen the systems of support within the social environment of academically at-risk African American male students.

“Doing Something”: African American Male Adolescent/Parent Experiences and Perceptions About Bullying

This was an exploratory phenomenological study regarding experiences and perceptions about bullying among African American male adolescents (AAMAs) and their parents. The sample for this study included 16 AAMAs and 16 parents (one AAMA and one matched parent per family; N = 32). This study was designed to understand what AAMAs and their parents gleaned from their experiences with bullying. The findings were organized into three themes: interpersonal and structural barriers that hindered responses to bullying, intentional systemic approaches to prevent and respond to bullying, and taking direct action when bullying occurred.

Offsetting Racial Divides: Adolescent African American Males & Restorative Justice Practices

Zero-tolerance suspensions are exclusionary practices that disrupt and deny students access to structured routines, academic instruction, and school-provided meals. Throughout the United States, statistical comparisons in zero-tolerance suspensions illustrate harsh racial disproportionalities, particularly for adolescent African American males. Inequities in disciplinary practices place adolescent African American males at higher risk for dropping out of high school, retention, and incarceration. Recent literature highlights the pathway of restorative justice as a tool to decrease inequities in zero-tolerance school suspensions. This case study applies the theoretical framework of Critical Race Theory (CRT) to examine this phenomenon by presenting the story of a 17-year-old African American male and his lived experience of a zero-tolerance school suspension and the social and emotional benefits of counter-storytelling as a restorative justice practice. This paper seeks to contribute to the literature by illustrating the inequities of mandated school suspensions and the observed outcomes when a social worker with experience in CRT and restorative justice intervenes.

K–12 School Counselors Utilizing Critical Race Theory to Support the Racial Identity Development and Academic Achievement of African American Males

This article examines the role of racial identity development in the academic achievement of African American adolescent males. Through the lens of critical race theory (CRT), we highlight how K–12 school counselors may support and enhance the schooling experiences of African American males by understanding and acknowledging how racial identity development may impact academic achievement. A focus on CRT in education emphasizes the continual persistence of racism ingrained in K–12 education located within the educational opportunities, curriculum, representation, and teacher perception of African American males. We offer insight into how school counselors may work to decrease barriers to achievement by analyzing the effect race and gender have on the identification, retention, and underachievement of their African American male students.

Does marijuana use among African American adolescent males differ based on school factors?

Marijuana use among adolescents is a major public health problem. The purpose of this study was to examine whether past-year marijuana use among African American adolescent males differed based on age and school factors. Data from the 2015–2018 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) were analyzed. A national sample of African American students in grades 7 through 12 (n = 5,738) completed the survey. Results indicated that 14.7% reported using marijuana in the past year. Those at highest risk for past-year marijuana use were those who were male, were 16 to 17 years old, were in 9th through 12th grade, did not like going to school, and thought that most/all students in their grade used marijuana. Prevention professionals should consider the links among school attitudes, perceived social norms, and marijuana use when developing programs and interventions. Efforts are needed that are culturally competent and culturally sensitive to help reduce marijuana use rates among African American male adolescents. Future research is needed to further examine school perceptions and marijuana use among this population.

The Role of Depressive Symptoms in Substance Use Among African American Boys Exposed to Community Violence.

Adolescents exposed to community violence (CV) are at increased risk for alcohol, marijuana, and tobacco use. The disproportionate exposure to CV among African American boys heightens their susceptibility to substance use and related problems. Depressive symptoms are linked to both CV exposure and adolescent substance use; however, their role in the link between CV exposure and substance use in African American male adolescents has received little attention. The current study examined whether depressive symptoms mediate or moderate the associations between CV exposure and substance use among African American male adolescents. Participants were 225 African American adolescent boys in Baltimore, Maryland who completed measures of CV exposure and depressive symptoms in 10th grade and measures of substance use in 10th and 11th grades. Hierarchal linear regression analyses indicated that depressive symptoms moderated associations between violent victimization and alcohol and tobacco use, R2 = .21-.30, ps < .001. There was a positive association between CV victimization and alcohol and tobacco use among those who reported high levels of depressive symptoms but not low levels. Depressive symptoms also moderated the link between witnessing CV and alcohol use such that witnessing CV was negatively related to alcohol use among those who reported high levels of depressive symptoms only. The findings suggest that depressive symptoms may play an important role in differentiating alcohol and tobacco use outcomes in CV-exposed African American boys. Prevention efforts should assess for depressive symptoms to identify adolescent boys with the highest risk of substance use.

Obesity and Depression: Its Prevalence and Influence as a Prognostic Factor: A Systematic Review.

ObjectiveDepression and obesity are two conditions with great impact over global health. This is mainly due to their high prevalence and the morbidity and mortality associated to both. The main aim of the present systematic review is to study the association between obesity and depression and the prognostic implications derived from it. MethodsA literature review was performed in the PUBMED database. 18 articles were found (9 cross-sectional studies, 6 longitudinal studies and 3 clinical trials), which were reviewed by critical reading after which a summary of the main conclusions was written. ResultsThese selected articles confirmed that there is indeed a link between depression and obesity, although there are doubts as to the significance of this relationship. Depression is a risk factor for obesity, especially atypical depression and in African-American adolescent males. Obesity is a risk factor for depression, especially in women and for recurrent depressive disorder. The comorbidity between obesity and depression is a risk factor for a bad prognosis illness. ConclusionThe relationship between both disorders has been analysed in scientific literature, obtaining significant associations but also contradictory results. The most current data demonstrates that there is a relationship between both entities, although there is no unanimity when it comes to establishing the meaning of this association.

Hyperarousal and hypervigilance in African American male adolescents exposed to community violence

The current study examined the promotive and protective roles of hyperarousal and hypervigilance for community violence exposure over time in a sample of African American adolescent males. Participants were 135 African American male high school students (Mage = 15.18 years, SD = 0.98). Participants completed measures of exposure to community violence, hyperarousal symptoms, and aggressive behaviors at two time points. Consistent with a promotive role, regression analyses revealed that hypervigilance predicted decreases in witnessing violence, but not victimization, one year later. Analyses using bias-corrected bootstrapping revealed that the effect of physiological hyperarousal on subsequent victimization was moderated by physical aggression. Specifically, hyperarousal significantly predicted decreases in victimization at high, but not low or moderate levels of aggression. Protective models were tested by examining hyperarousal and hypervigilance as moderators of the association between baseline violence exposure and violence exposure one year later. Neither hyperarousal nor hypervigilance were protective factors for subsequent violence exposure.

Do African American Male and Female Adolescents Differ in Technological Engagement?: The Effects of Parental Encouragement and Adolescent Technological Confidence

African Americans, especially African American women, remain one of the most underrepresented groups in technology-based degrees and careers. However, little is known about whether gender differences permeate African American adolescents’ engagement in technology in earlier development, such as in middle and high school (ages 12–18). Drawing on an ecological and intersectional framework, we examined if African American male and female adolescents differed in technological engagement and what contextual factors affected their engagement. We hypothesized that parental encouragement would be associated with greater technological confidence in adolescents, which would be linked to more experiences with and interests in technology. Further, we investigated if these associations would vary by adolescents’ and parents’ gender. Survey data from 1041 African American parent-adolescent dyads highlighted that adolescents had less experience and interest with technical activities than with creative activities, especially among female adolescents. More parents encouraged adolescent sons but limited daughters to use technology, yet female adolescents reported greater technological confidence. Moderated mediation analyses revealed that adolescents’ technological confidence mediated the positive association between parental encouragement and adolescents’ technological engagement across all parent-adolescent dyads, but with some nuances. Our findings suggest that prospective gender studies and educational programs should consider the influences of parenting and gender on promoting African American adolescents’ technological involvement and confidence.

A Longitudinal Examination of Community Violence Exposure, School Belongingness, and Mental Health Among African-American Adolescent Males

African-American males from urban communities are disproportionately exposed to community violence, placing them at increased risk for mental health problems compared to youth from other racial/ethnic groups. While risk factors for violence exposure have been identified in the literature, protective variables and competencies are studied with less frequency. The purpose of the current study is to identify the role of school belongingness as a protective factor against the deleterious outcomes associated with community violence exposure. Participants were 119 African-American male adolescents (M = 15.33, SD = .95 at Time 1) attending an all-male charter high school in an urban community. Consistent with prior research, community violence exposure showed a negative association with various measures of psychosocial functioning 12–15 months later, controlling for prior levels of functioning. Moderation analyses revealed that at low levels of school belongingness, community violence exposure positively predicted a range of negative psychological outcomes, consistent with a protective-stabilizing effect. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of fostering adaptive levels of school connectedness for youth in high-risk communities.

“Loud, proud, and love a crowd:” African American girls and school discipline practices

Historically, middle grade schools doled out the harshest and most exclusionary discipline to adolescent African American males. African American males were routed along school to prison pathways at rates higher than African American females and their peers from other racial backgrounds. National conversations about exclusionary discipline practices and the school-to-prison pipeline have focused primarily on African American males. More recently, however, African American girls experience exclusionary discipline practices and school-to-prison pathways at rates that, in some cases, exceed African American males. Consequently, national conversations can no longer be single-gendered. African American girls must also be central to dialogues on school discipline and the school-to-prison pipeline. This paper shines klieg lights on middle grade African American girls’ subjection to exclusionary school discipline, school-to-prison pipelines, and negative and stereotypical perceptions. Lastly, this author draws from the literature and her experiences working with middle grade African American girls with multiple school suspensions. She concludes the discussion with culturally responsive recommendations for equitable school discipline practices.

Symbolic Meaning of Violence: Urban African-American Adolescent Males’ Perspectives

This paper explores the symbolic meaning of violence based on urban African-American adolescent males’ (UAAMs) perspectives. Findings in this paper derived from a phenomenological investigation of UAAMs’ meanings and experiences of violence. Nine UAAMs participated in phenomenological interviews, and six in a focus group. Several themes emerged from the study, including violence as a means to gain respect, a form of intimidation, and self-defense. Implications for counselors and social service providers are discussed. Urban African-American adolescent males’ (UAAMs) experiences of violence have remained at alarming rates over the past decade. Despite some drops in these numbers in recent years, UAAMs are more likely to encounter episodes of violence, including poverty and homelessness, mass incarceration, and gun violence and homicides when compared to their white and racially diverse counterparts. Although researchers have investigated this phenomenon among UAAM and their urban peers from a variety of theoretical lenses and vantage points, limited research has investigated UAAMs’ meaning and experiences of violence, from the perspective of these developing young men. As a result, a gap in the literature lies in the fact that UAAMs’ narratives regarding their experiences and meanings of violence have been granted limited attention. Thus, UAAMs’ narratives about their experiences of violence may provide important solutions as to the causes and solutions of this phenomenon.

Exploring the Influence of Racial-Ethnic and Gender Identity on the Prosocial Behaviors of African American Adolescent Males

African American male students face a multitude of challenges that may lead to poor academic and social outcomes at school. There is extensive research on the predictors of their problems, but far less on the factors that can lead to positive outcomes. To address this gap, this exploratory study asked two main questions. Does racial-ethnic identity and gender identity predict adolescent African American males’ prosocial behaviors, and if so, is this done jointly or independently? Using regression analysis, this study found racial public regard, gender public regard, and gender private regard positively predicted participants’ prosocial behaviors. In addition, racial public regard moderated the positive relationship between racial centrality and prosocial behaviors as well as the positive relationship between racial private regard and prosocial behaviors. Findings suggest critical conversations concerning race should be included in social-emotional learning initiatives for these students.

Profiles of Future Orientation among Assault-injured Adolescents: Correlates and Concurrent Outcomes.

Future orientation has been established as having positive associations with health and educational outcomes for adolescents exposed to violence. However, conceptualizations of future orientation have been inconsistent. This study uses latent profile analysis to understand the interrelationships between measures of future orientation (e.g., commitment to learning, goal orientation, hope, expectancies, fatalism). Participants were 188 primarily African American male early adolescents ranging from 10 to 15 years old (60.6% male; Mage = 12.87, SDage = 1.52). Adolescents in the high- and low-future orientation profiles differed on academic behaviors and aggressive behavior. A discordant profile emerged with adolescents moderate on all measures of future orientation except expectancies. Relational aspects of parenting were associated with higher likelihood of adolescents being assigned to the high- and low-future orientation profiles. These findings suggest the importance of parental warmth in promoting future orientation for adolescents in risky environments, as improving future orientation might mitigate risk for future negative academic comes or engagement in violent behavior.

Researcher vulnerability: implications for educational research and practice

This paper explores the concept of researcher vulnerability through a review of the extant research literature and each author’s feelings of vulnerability connected to their research with vulnerable populations while exploring both sensitive and seemingly innocuous, yet important, topics in education using qualitative methodology. Specifically, a reflection of our respective study of the academic and social transitions of student combat veterans, and the academic and gender socialization of adolescent African American males is presented as means of illustrating the phenomena of researcher vulnerability. Implications of vulnerability for research, practice, and theory are discussed.

"You Never Know Who's Looking at Your Page!": African American Male Adolescents' Perceptions of Emotional Display Rules Online.

Social network sites (SNSs) are a powerful new context for adolescent development. We qualitatively investigate African American adolescent boys' (N=50, mean age=15.8) perceptions of emotional display rules on SNSs. We present and discuss a taxonomy of display rules for anger, sadness, embarrassment, and excitement. Perceived display rules around anger and sadness were most notable. Participants' understandings of display rules around anger were complex and varied, with many describing threats of violence as marking the line between acceptable and unacceptable expressions. Although youth stated that expressing sadness via SNS could garner emotional support, this was understood somewhat consistently as unacceptable. Overall, our findings suggest that perceptions of emotional display rules on SNSs are varied, complicated, and can be difficult to navigate.

Exploration of Racial Enactments in an Interracial Therapeutic Dyad to Foster the Strengthening of Voice and Identity in African American Male Adolescents

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of systemic racism on an interracial therapeutic dyad between a white therapist and an African American adolescent male. Leary (2000) operationalized the term “racial enactments” and made the important point that its “most common” manifestation “has been our relative silence about racial issues” (p. 647). It is the premise of this paper that the youth of color’s subjective experience of racial microaggressions and assaults experienced on a daily basis must be validated and explored prior to a meaningful intersubjective exploration in the clinical encounter. The emphasis in this paper is on the racial enactment that precedes the clinical encounter. A treatment vignette is used to highlight the intersection of social and psychic spheres of human experience and how an awareness of unconscious bias in the therapist can facilitate a more meaningful dialogue in which priority is given to the emergence of a powerful client narrative voice.

An Examination and Interrogation of African American Males’ Racial Identity, Prosocial Behaviors and Aggression

Using multiple regression analysis and Pearson’s R, the current exploratory study of 89 African American male adolescents (M = 12.5 years old) examined relationships among REI (i.e., 20 as a socialization product of identity formation processes), prosocial behaviors (i.e., represented as supportive behavioral orientation in response to stress), and aggression (i.e., a reactive coping strategy). Significant relationships among racial public regard, age, and verbal aggression emerged. Older adolescents believed that other people have lower regard for their race, and this predicted an increase in verbal aggression. These findings demonstrate the importance of understanding contextual factors when examining outcomes.