Aflatoxin Regulations Research Articles

Aflatoxin Occurrence, Food Regulations, Dietary Exposure, and Risk Assessment: A Mini Review from the Malaysian Perspective

Aflatoxins are ubiquitous and occur in food. Exposure to aflatoxins seriously impact the health of human and animal. It is concerning especially when aflatoxins are odourless, colourless, and tasteless that hardly be detected through naked eyes. Ingestion of aflatoxin-contaminated food contributes the major route of exposure. The present review is an update on the aflatoxin occurrence in food, aflatoxin regulations in food, and recent risk assessment of aflatoxin exposure in Malaysia. Peanuts and chili were more prone to aflatoxin contamination in Malaysia. The extreme weather experienced in Malaysia and global climatic change may worsen the aflatoxin contamination in food. The regulatory standards for aflatoxins imposed by Malaysia are less stringent than developed countries. The dietary exposure of aflatoxins among Malaysian was relatively high as compared with other Asia countries, ranging from 0.002 to 34.00 ng/kg body weight/day. Nonetheless, Malaysian population had low risk of aflatoxin-related liver cancer, with an estimated liver cancer risk of <1 cancer case/100,000 population/year.

Global wheat trade and Codex Alimentarius guidelines for deoxynivalenol: A mycotoxin common in wheat

Deoxynivalenol (DON), a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium species that infect cereal grains, including wheat, is a significant food safety concern because of its adverse gastrointestinal effects and potential immunotoxicity. In 2015, the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the United Nations set guidelines for maximum allowable DON in wheat and other cereal grains. In this analysis, we employ social network models to analyze global wheat trade patterns in the years before and after the Codex DON guidelines were enacted in 2015: each year from 2012 to 2018 inclusive. Global wheat trading patterns in these seven years all presented hybrid structures: clusters of countries by continent, but a core-periphery structure within each continental cluster. This means that wheat trade, unlike maize and pistachio trade as determined from previous studies, appears to be driven by geographic proximity rather than similarity in food safety regulations. We found no evidence that global wheat trading patterns between nations changed as a result of the Codex DON guidelines, which stands in contrast to our earlier analyses of how aflatoxin regulations affected both maize and pistachio trade worldwide. This may be because insufficient time has passed, or because a single unified DON guideline does not have the same effect as multiple different national-level aflatoxin regulations in changing world food trade. If the central nations in such a global trade structure do not move upon a new policy, it is unlikely that the policy will affect the overall structure of global wheat trade. Without a core-periphery structure and engaged nations in the center of world wheat trade adopting these guidelines, it may take more years yet for these guidelines to be widely adopted, and for populations worldwide to benefit from lower DON exposure in their diets.

Information, technology, and market rewards: Incentivizing aflatoxin control in Ghana

The quality of agricultural products can affect both farm incomes and the healthfulness of farm families’ diets. However, many quality attributes are hard to observe, making it difficult for farmers to learn how to improve the quality of their crops. Lack of premium pass-through and the cost of quality-enhancing inputs are additional barriers to improving output quality. In this paper, we examine the relative importance of each of these barriers to smallholder adoption of technologies for reducing aflatoxin, a common food safety hazard. We conduct a randomized controlled trial in northern Ghana over the course of two seasons to test how three interventions affect adoption of practices that reduce aflatoxin risk as well as aflatoxin levels in groundnuts: (1) training on aflatoxin and its prevention, (2) distribution of free drying sheets, and (3) a price premium for groundnuts that comply with aflatoxin regulations. We find that training farmers substantially improves post-harvest practices. Drying sheet distribution and, to a lesser extent, the premium price offer lead to further improvements, including crowding-in of non-subsidized practices. We find substantial corresponding decreases in aflatoxin levels from drying sheet provision in the study region with high non-negligible background aflatoxin levels. Impacts are stronger for households with higher aflatoxin at baseline, more members, and young children.

Detection of Aflatoxins in Different Matrices and Food-Chain Positions.

Aflatoxins, produced mainly by filamentous fungi Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, are one of the most carcinogenic compounds that have adverse health effects on both humans and animals consuming contaminated food and feed, respectively. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and aflatoxin B2 (AFB2) as well as aflatoxin G1(AFG1) and aflatoxin G2 (AFG2) occur in the contaminated foods and feed. In the case of dairy ruminants, after the consumption of feed contaminated with aflatoxins, aflatoxin metabolites [aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) and aflatoxin M2 (AFM2)] may appear in milk. Because of the health risk and the official maximum limits of aflatoxins, there is a need for application of fast and accurate testing methods. At present, there are several analytical methods applied in practice for determination of aflatoxins. The aim of this review is to provide a guide that summarizes worldwide aflatoxin regulations and analytical methods for determination of aflatoxins in different food and feed matrices, that helps in the decision to choose the most appropriate method that meets the practical requirements of fast and sensitive control of their contamination. Analytical options are outlined from the simplest and fastest methods with the smallest instrument requirements, through separation methods, to the latest hyphenated techniques.

Occurrence of Aflatoxin M1 in Milk-based Mithae samples from Pakistan

AbstractMilk products with aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) contamination are a lethal dilemma worldwide due to their carcinogenic and mutagenic effects especially in developing countries. This study investigated the occurrence of AFM1 in milk-based mithae samples marketed in Lahore, Pakistan. Two hundred (n = 200) different types of mithae samples were analyzed for AFM1 using a HPLC florescence detector. Results showed that AFM1 was present in 76% of the analyzed samples, of which more than 80% had a much higher level of AFM1 than the European Union permissible level of i.e.0.05 μg/kg in milk products. The aflatoxin M1 in all the tested samples was observed in the range of 0.004 to 1.49 μg/kg. On average, the Gulab Jamun and Malai Laddu showed the highest level of aflatoxin M1 i.e. 1.49 and 1.17μg/kg, respectively. The lowest amount of aflatoxin M1 was found in Kalakand samples 0.004μg/ kg. The conclusion drawn from this data revealed that almost three-fourths of the mithae samples were highly contaminated with AFM1 due to their main component, milk. The consumption of milk-based mithae is popular due to health benefits as well as being part of tradition. Instead of being nourishing and beneficial, it is been found to be hazardous to human health due to aflatoxin contamination. Continued monitoring of aflatoxin M1with strict rules and regulations is required to prevent aflatoxin accumulation in this favorite food commodity.

Risk assessment of aflatoxin-related liver cancer in Bangladesh

ABSTRACTAflatoxins are mycotoxins (fungal toxins) produced by Aspergillus species in variety of food commodities. Consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated food can cause adverse health effects, including liver cancer. Aflatoxin exposure is usually higher in hot and humid countries. Previous biomarker-based studies have indicated significant exposure to aflatoxins among the Bangladeshi population. Recently, high aflatoxin levels were reported in dates, which are consumed in large quantities during the month of Ramadan in Bangladesh and other Muslim countries. Bangladesh has recently enacted aflatoxin regulation in foods. In this study, we determined the risk of aflatoxin-related liver cancer among the Bangladeshi population based on the average dietary intakes of different aflatoxin contaminated foods, accounting for the synergistic impacts of aflatoxin with chronic hepatitis B viral infection in inducing cancer. We also determined whether the new aflatoxin regulations in Bangladesh could significantly reduce the risk of liver cancer. The mean number of cancer cases per year caused by dietary aflatoxin exposure in Bangladesh was estimated at about 1311, or 43.9% of the total annual liver cancer cases in Bangladesh. The new aflatoxin regulations do not appear likely to significantly reduce the risk of liver cancer in the country.

Aflatoxins and Health Considerations in Consumer Food Choices in Ghana

Abstract Food safety enjoys sustained attention among the scientific community, policymakers, and the general public due to health impacts. However, pursuing appropriate regulations for pervasive food contaminants is a challenging policy issue, particularly for naturally-occurring food toxins such as aflatoxins and other mycotoxins. This paper explores consumer preferences for quality aflatoxin-free peanuts, and how food safety concerns may impact willingness to pay more for safer foods. Incorporating ‘risky’ foods into random utility-maximization framework, we analyze contingent valuation survey data on Ghana. Model and survey results show consumers in Ghana approve of food aflatoxin regulations, and are prepared to pay price premiums as incentives to ensure supply of quality peanuts. Findings reveal that consumers prioritize food safety above prices in market decisions. People prefer introduction of aflatoxin regulations that would guarantee good health; useful information for policy makers in Ghana, Africa, and rest of the developing world.

Food Safety Legislation Regarding Of Aflatoxins Contamination

Abstract The main objective of the European Union (EU) is to reduce certain contaminants in foodstuffs to acceptable levels. The occurrence of aflatoxin B1 in food was considered to be one of the most important issues of global food security to protect the health of humans and animals, over 100 nations have established maximum tolerable levels for aflatoxin in food. Although EU legislation covers many aspects of food safety was not legally establish an integrated framework that could effectively combat and cover all sectors of the food chain. Monitoring and reporting levels of aflatoxins after controls are essential actions that assist to identify potential risks to human health. The review process for aflatoxin regulations is a complex activity involving many factors and stakeholders.

Global impacts of aflatoxin in maize: trade and human health

Maize is one of the most important agricultural commodities worldwide in terms of amounts produced, consumed, and traded. Hence, naturally occurring aflatoxin contamination in maize has important ramifications for both global trade and health. Aflatoxin is produced by certain species of the genusAspergillus in a variety of food crops, including maize, peanuts, and tree nuts. Over 100 nations have aflatoxin regulations, which are intended to protect human and animal health, but also incur economic losses to nations that attempt to export maize and other aflatoxin-contaminated commodities. These economic effects must be balanced against the health protection afforded by the regulations. It is important to acknowledge that, even in nations that have aflatoxin regulations, many individuals consume maize that has undergone no regulatory inspection, especially in nations where subsistence farming is widespread. Hence, aflatoxin contamination, exposure, and lack of regulation can also contribute to adverse effects on trade and health worldwide. This review, part of a special issue on aflatoxin in maize, describes economic and health effects of aflatoxin in maize on a global level. It ends with a story of an intervention that reduced maize consumption in one population in China, which is likely the main determinant of the reduction in liver cancer mortality in that population over the last 30 years, from reduced aflatoxin exposure.

Aflatoxin Regulations and Global Pistachio Trade: Insights from Social Network Analysis

Aflatoxins, carcinogenic toxins produced by Aspergillus fungi, contaminate maize, peanuts, and tree nuts in many regions of the world. Pistachios are the main source of human dietary aflatoxins from tree nuts worldwide. Over 120 countries have regulations for maximum allowable aflatoxin levels in food commodities. We developed social network models to analyze the association between nations’ aflatoxin regulations and global trade patterns of pistachios from 1996–2010. The main pistachio producing countries are Iran and the United States (US), which together contribute to nearly 75% of the total global pistachio market. Over this time period, during which many nations developed or changed their aflatoxin regulations in pistachios, global pistachio trade patterns changed; with the US increasingly exporting to countries with stricter aflatoxin standards. The US pistachio crop has had consistently lower levels of aflatoxin than the Iranian crop over this same time period. As similar trading patterns have also been documented in maize, public health may be affected if countries without aflatoxin regulations, or with more relaxed regulations, continually import crops with higher aflatoxin contamination. Unlike the previous studies on maize, this analysis includes a dynamic element, examining how trade patterns change over time with introduction or adjustment of aflatoxin regulations.

Global Risk Assessment of Aflatoxins in Maize and Peanuts: Are Regulatory Standards Adequately Protective?

The aflatoxins are a group of fungal metabolites that contaminate a variety of staple crops, including maize and peanuts, and cause an array of acute and chronic human health effects. Aflatoxin B1 in particular is a potent liver carcinogen, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) risk is multiplicatively higher for individuals exposed to both aflatoxin and chronic infection with hepatitis B virus (HBV). In this work, we sought to answer the question: do current aflatoxin regulatory standards around the world adequately protect human health? Depending upon the level of protection desired, the answer to this question varies. Currently, most nations have a maximum tolerable level of total aflatoxins in maize and peanuts ranging from 4 to 20ng/g. If the level of protection desired is that aflatoxin exposures would not increase lifetime HCC risk by more than 1 in 100,000 cases in the population, then most current regulatory standards are not adequately protective even if enforced, especially in low-income countries where large amounts of maize and peanuts are consumed and HBV prevalence is high. At the protection level of 1 in 10,000 lifetime HCC cases in the population, however, almost all aflatoxin regulations worldwide are adequately protective, with the exception of several nations in Africa and Latin America.

Aflatoxin Regulations in a Network of Global Maize Trade

Worldwide, food supplies often contain unavoidable contaminants, many of which adversely affect health and hence are subject to regulations of maximum tolerable levels in food. These regulations differ from nation to nation, and may affect patterns of food trade. We soughtto determine whether there is an association between nations' food safety regulations and global food trade patterns, with implications for public health and policymaking. We developed a network model of maize trade around the world. From maize import/export data for 217 nations from 2000–2009, we calculated basic statistics on volumes of trade; then examined how regulations of aflatoxin, a common contaminant of maize, are similar or different between pairs of nations engaging in significant amounts of maize trade. Globally, market segregation appears to occur among clusters of nations. The United States is at the center of one cluster; European countries make up another cluster with hardly any maize trade with the US; and Argentina, Brazil, and China export maize all over the world. Pairs of nations trading large amounts of maize have very similar aflatoxin regulations: nations with strict standards tend to trade maize with each other, while nations with more relaxed standards tend to trade maize with each other. Rarely among the top pairs of maize-trading nations do total aflatoxin standards (standards based on the sum of the levels of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2) differ by more than 5 µg/kg. These results suggest that, globally, separate maize trading communities emerge; and nations tend to trade with other nations that have very similar food safety standards.

Comment on 'A tale of two commodities: how EU mycotoxin regulations have affected U.S. tree nut industries'

In my article published in the previous issue (Wu, 2008, ‘A tale of two commodities: how EU mycotoxin regulations have affected U.S. tree nut industries’, World Mycotoxin Journal 1: 95-102), I had made the following statement about the European Union’s foodborne aflatoxin regulations: ‘The European Union’s (EU) regulation on aflatoxins is among the strictest in the world, at 4 ng/g total aflatoxins in food other than peanuts, and 15 ng/g in peanuts’. This is an oversimplification, as the EU has more detailed regulations depending on the use and the level of processing of the food. The more complete EU aflatoxin regulations can be found in the European Commission Regulation 1881/2006/EC of 19 December 2006 (EC, 2006). Specifically, the 15 ng/g standard applies to groundnuts to be subjected to sorting or other physical treatment before consumption or use as an ingredient in foodstuffs. However, groundnuts, other nuts, and processed products made thereof that are intended for direct human consumption are subject to the 4 ng/g aflatoxin standard. In addition, a 10 ng/g standard applies to spices and processed cereal-based foods, and a 0.1 ng/g standard applies to baby foods.

What price precaution? European harmonisation of aflatoxin regulations and African groundnut exports

The effects of varying regulatory standards on trade in agricultural products are at the forefront of policy debate. This paper employs a gravity model to estimate the impact of changes in aflatoxin standards on trade flows of groundnut products using trade data for Europe and Africa during 1989–1998. Results suggest that a 10 per cent tighter aflatoxin standard in European countries will reduce edible groundnut imports by 11 per cent. A new European Union regulation on aflatoxins will result in a trade flow that is 63 per cent lower than when the Codex Alimentarius international standards are followed.