Aflatoxin B1 B2 Research Articles

Enhancing bread quality and extending shelf life using dried sourdough

This study investigated the physicochemical properties, microbiological analysis, antifungal activity, and mycotoxin analysis of bread. Eight breads were prepared, including control Bread (CB), control Bread with calcium propionate (CPB), commercial sourdough breads (CCB), control bread made with oven-dried sourdough (SB), and bread baked with oven-dried sourdough fermented by Pediococcus pentosaceus TI6 (SB-TI6). These breads were contaminated with Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium verrucosum, and their shelf life was monitored over 7 days. The results indicated that incorporating sourdough powder into bread significantly extends the shelf life and reduces fungal contamination. This reduction resulted in lower levels of mycotoxins, with the use of dry sourdough fermented by P. pentosaceus TI6 leading to the lowest levels of aflatoxins. In the case of SB-TI6, minor levels of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), and G1(AFG1) were detected, with only 0.003 mg of AFG2/Kg of the product. Conversely, CB loaves exhibited the highest mycotoxin contamination levels, reaching values of 330 mg of AFB1/Kg. The findings suggested that incorporating dry sourdough in breadmaking served as a viable alternative to synthetic preservatives, effectively reducing mycotoxin levels and enhancing bread safety and shelf life.

Efficiency of cold atmospheric plasma under ozone (O3) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) regimes on the degradation of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in solid state and in spiked pistachio kernels

Mycotoxins are the primary contaminants in food that have a significant impact on global food safety and security. Cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) has demonstrated significant potential in reducing mycotoxins among innovative technologies. This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of a surface dielectric barrier discharge (SDBD) CAP system in reducing aflatoxins B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), G2 (AFG2), and ochratoxin A (OTA). The distinctive feature of the device here used was the ability to operate at two different powers, resulting in two different plasma reactive species ambients: ozone (O3) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) regimes. CAP treatments exhibited a significant reduction of all investigated pure mycotoxins, which was regime, molecule chemical structure, distance from the source and time-dependent. In particular, O3 regime was more effective (AFB1 and AFG1 99%, AFB2 and AFG2 60%, OTA 70% reduction, respectively, at 60 min, 4 cm distance from the plasma source). As low-moisture foods pistachio kernels (Pistacia vera L. seeds) were selected to evaluate the matrix effect. As expected, the mycotoxins were reduced to a much lesser extent than pure molecules. Worthy of note was the 23% reduction of OTA. To our best knowledge, this is the first investigation about OTA degradation in pistachio food matrix by cold plasma. It should also be noted that the pistachios have been artificially contaminated with spots of a mixture of mycotoxins, to best represent a probable real contamination.

Monitoring of Aflatoxins B1, G1, B2, and G2 in Spices from Riyadh Markets by Liquid Chromatography Coupled to Tandem Mass Spectrometry.

A total of 1053 samples of spices were collected from Riyadh markets during 2022. The contamination with aflatoxins (AF) B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), and G2 (AFG2) was determined via liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. AF extraction from spices was performed using an acetonitrile-formic acid mixture. The results obtained show that the highest value for AFB1 (3.865 μg/kg) was detected in the bay leaf sample, while the highest value for AFB2 (3.461 μg/kg) was found in red chili powder. The values of AFG1 and AFG2 did not exceed 2.59 μg/kg. The AF analysis shows that 24 out of 1053 samples (2.3%) contained one or more of these AFs. The highest percentage of contaminated samples was detected in black pepper. AFB1 was found in 21 samples of six types of spices, while AFG2 was detected in eight samples of four types of spices. Also, none of the samples exceeded the Saudi Food and Drug Authority and EU limits of 10 μg/kg. The present research is not a comprehensive study; however, it provides valuable information on AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2 levels in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia spices.

Survey and toxigenic abilities of Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Alternaria fungi from wheat and paddy grains in Shanghai, China.

A systematic study was carried out on 638 wheat and paddy grains (including fresh and stored samples) collected in 2021 from Shanghai, China, to identify the major mycobiota and their toxigenic abilities. A total of 349 fungi, namely, 252 Fusarium, 53 Aspergillus, and 44 Alternaria, were characterized by morphological and molecular identification. Fusarium and Aspergillus were more frequently isolated in paddy with Fusarium sambucinum species complex and Aspergillus section flavi as the predominant species, respectively. The genus Alternaria was the most frequently isolated fungal species in wheat. The toxin-producing potentials of the identified fungi were further evaluated in vitro. Deoxynevalenol (DON) was produced by 34.5% of Fusarium isolates and zearalenone (ZEN) was produced by 47.6% of them, and one isolate also processed the abilities for fumonisin B1 (FB1), B2 (FB2), and B3 (FB3) productions. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), and G1 (AFG1) were only generated by Aspergillus section flavi, with the production rate of 65.5%, 27.6%, and 13.8%, respectively. Alternariol (AOH) was the most prevalent Alternaria toxin, which could be produced by 95.5% of the isolates, followed by alternariol monomethyl ether (AME) (72.7%), altenuene (ALT) (52.3%), tenuazonic acid (TeA) (45.5%), tentoxin (TEN) (29.5%), and altenusin (ALS) (4.5%). A combinational analysis of mycobiota and toxigenic ability allowed us to provide comprehensive information about the production mechanisms of mycotoxins in wheat and paddy in a specific geographic area, and will be helpful for developing efficient prevention and control programs.

Development of High-Throughput Sample Preparation Procedures for the Quantitative Determination of Aflatoxins in Biological Matrices of Chickens and Cattle Using UHPLC-MS/MS.

Aflatoxins (AFs) frequently contaminate food and animal feeds, especially in (sub) tropical countries. If animals consume contaminated feeds, AFs (mainly aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), G2 (AFG2) and their major metabolites aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) and M2 (AFM2)) can be transferred to edible tissues and products, such as eggs, liver and muscle tissue and milk, which ultimately can reach the human food chain. Currently, the European Union has established a maximum level for AFM1 in milk (0.05 µg kg-1). Dietary adsorbents, such as bentonite clay, have been used to reduce AFs exposure in animal husbandry and carry over to edible tissues and products. To investigate the efficacy of adding bentonite clay to animal diets in reducing the concentration of AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, and the metabolites AFM1 and AFM2 in animal-derived foods (chicken muscle and liver, eggs, and cattle milk), chicken and cattle plasma and cattle ruminal fluid, a sensitive and selective ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) method has been developed. High-throughput sample preparation procedures were optimized, allowing the analysis of 96 samples per analytical batch and consisted of a liquid extraction using 1% formic acid in acetonitrile, followed by a further clean-up using QuEChERS (muscle tissue), QuEChERS in combination with Oasis® Ostro (liver tissue), Oasis® Ostro (egg, plasma), and Oasis® PRiME HLB (milk, ruminal fluid). The different procedures were validated in accordance with European guidelines. As a proof-of-concept, the final methods were used to successfully determine AFs concentrations in chicken and cattle samples collected during feeding trials for efficacy and safety evaluation of mycotoxin detoxifiers to protect against AFs as well as their carry-over to animal products.

Comprehensive Review of Aflatoxin Contamination, Impact on Health and Food Security, and Management Strategies in Pakistan.

Aflatoxins (AFs) are the most important toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic fungal toxins that routinely contaminate food and feed. While more than 20 AFs have been identified to date, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), G2 (AFG2), and M1 (AFM1) are the most common. Over 25 species of Aspergillus have been shown to produce AFs, with Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus, and Aspergillus nomius being the most important and well-known AF-producing fungi. These ubiquitous molds can propagate on agricultural commodities to produce AFs in fields and during harvesting, processing, transportation, and storage. Countries with warmer climates and that produce foods susceptible to AF contamination shoulder a substantial portion of the global AF burden. Pakistan's warm climate promotes the growth of toxigenic fungi, resulting in frequent AF contamination of human foods and animal feeds. The potential for contamination in Pakistan is exacerbated by improper storage conditions and a lack of regulatory limits and enforcement mechanisms. High levels of AFs in common commodities produced in Pakistan are a major food safety problem, posing serious health risks to the population. Furthermore, aflatoxin contamination contributes to economic losses by limiting exports of these commodities. In this review, recent information regarding the fungal producers of AFs, prevalence of AF contamination of foods and feed, current regulations, and AF prevention and removal strategies are summarized, with a major focus on Pakistan.

Occurrence, dietary exposure, and risk assessment of aflatoxins in wheat flour from Iran

ABSTRACT This study was performed to determine the concentration and assess the risk of aflatoxins (AFs) i.e. aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), and G2 (AFG2) in wheat whole and refined flour samples for Iranian adults. Sixty-five (60.19%) out of 108 analysed samples were positive for AFB1 and total AFs (AFB1+ AFB2+ AFG1+ AFG2). The range of AFB1 and the total AFs in samples were 0.14–7.34 and 0.34–7.61 µg kg−1, respectively. While, their means were 1.70 ± 0.22 and 2.15 ± 0.23, respectively. AFB1 level in 7 (6.48%) samples exceeded maximum limits allowed according to Iran standard (5 µg kg−1) while all samples had total AFs at an acceptable level (15 µg kg−1). The incidence and concentration of AFs in wheat whole flour samples were higher than that of refined flour one. The estimated daily intake (EDI), the margin of exposure (MOE), hepatocellular cancer risk of AFB1 through flour samples were 0.004 µg kg−1 bw day−1, 108.74 and 4.12 cases per 100,000 individuals/75 years, respectively. As EDI was more than the suggested value of 0.017 ng kg−1 bw day−1 and hepatocellular cancer risk was higher than the recommended level of 0.1 cases/75 years/100,000 individuals and MOE >10,000, it could be concluded AFs level in flour samples had a health potential risk to human health.

Changes in Aflatoxin Content During the Processing of Vinegar Obtained From Grape

Mycotoxins are known to be one of the most important food contaminants that pose potential health risks to humans. This study aimed to investigate the changes in total aflatoxin (TAF) content during grape vinegar production. Different types of aflatoxins including aflatoxin B1 (AFB1 ), B2 (AFB2 ), G1 (AFG1 ), and G2 (AFG2 ) were spiked into washed grape samples in the level of 5 μg/kg. Then grape samples were converted to vinegar. After different stages of vinegar processing including juicing, alcoholic fermentation, acetic acid fermentation, and pasteurization, sampling was performed and the level of each aflatoxin was measured using high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detector (HPLC-FD). Among different processing steps, the pasteurization operation had the least effect on the removal of aflatoxin. After juicing, the amount of AFB1 , AFB2 , AFG1 and AFG2 decreased by 14%, 11.18%, 13.77%, and 18.56%, respectively. Alcoholic fermentation had the greatest effect on the removal of aflatoxin so that it could reduce the levels of AFB1 , AFB2 , AFG1 and AFG2 by 41.87%, 45.34%, 45.37%, and 46.52%, respectively. Overall, during processing and conversion of grapes to vinegar, the values of AFB1 , AFB2 , AFG1 and AFG2 were reduced by 76.20%, 71.06%, 69.26%, and 75.85%, respectively. Processing grapes to vinegar can have a significant effect on the aflatoxin reduction.

Unusual pattern of aflatoxins and ochratoxin in commercially grown maize varieties of Pakistan

The contamination of food with mycotoxins could be a major health risk. Identification and quantification of mycotoxins in maize are essentially required to guarantee food safety. Seven commonly grown maize cultivars were sown at semi-arid conditions in Pakistan. After harvesting plants, total aflatoxin (AFs), aflatoxins B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), G2 (AFG2), and ochratoxin-A (OTA) contents were determined in maize flour using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Results showed an unusual pattern of AFs in maize with a higher concentration of AFG1 in all maize varieties. The AFB1 was not found in most of the samples, however, all maize grains contained AFs above the maximum tolerable limit (20 μg/kg). The highest concentration of AFs was recorded in Ayub-1/26 maize (362.8 μg/kg). Ochratoxin-A (OTA) was detected in 71% maize samples ranged from 2.14 to 214 μg/kg. The highest OTA and microbial load were recorded in Ayub-2/27 grains that exceeded the FDA limit (50 μg/kg). These results indicated the higher prevalence of total AFs, AFG1, and OTA at the harvest stage of maize that could pose significant health hazards to humans and livestock.

Aspergillus section Flavi and aflatoxins in dried figs and nuts in Algeria

ABSTRACTThe presence of Aspergillus section Flavi and aflatoxin (AF) contamination was investigated in 112 samples of peanuts, almonds and dried figs collected in Algeria. The occurrence of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2) in different commodities has been determined with a sensitive method based on high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with fluorescence detection with post-column photochemical derivatisation. Analytical results indicated that 28 samples of peanuts, 16 samples of almonds and 26 samples of dried figs contained detectable levels of AFs. A total of 69 samples (61.6%) were contaminated with AFB1 ranging from the limit of quantification to 174 µg kg−1. AFB2 was found in 12 samples (10.7%) and varied from 0.18 to 193 µg kg−1. Seven samples revealed AF concentrations lower than the limit of quantification. Eleven peanut and fourteen dried fig samples exceeded the European maximum limits for AFB1.

Aflatoxins, Fumonisins and Zearalenone Contamination of Maize in the Southeastern and Central Highlands Provinces of Vietnam

A survey of the contamination of maize with aflatoxins, fumonisins and zearalenone was carried out in the Southeastern and Central Highland provinces in Vietnam. Four provinces were chosen for sampling maize: Dong Nai (22), Binh Phuoc (25), Dak Lak (30) and Dak Nong (20). Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), G2 (AFG2), fumonisin B1 (FB1), fumonisin B2 (FB2) and zearalenone (ZEA) were analysed by HPLC in 97 maize kernel samples. Fumonisins were the most common toxins found in all samples (67%), followed by aflatoxins (55.7%) and zearalenone (27.8%). The incidence of aflatoxin positive samples (61.7%) in the Southeastern provinces was higher than in the Central Highlands (50%), while fumonisins and zearalenone incidences were higher in the Central Highlands. The mean level of fumonisin B1 in samples from the Central Highlands provinces (1757 µg/kg) was significantly greater (p < 0.05) than in the Southeastern provinces (740 µg/kg). Importantly, the percentage of positive samples (about 70%) that had over 20 µg/kg (ppb) aflatoxin was very high. Moreover, many samples (53%) contained more than one mycotoxin and this result highlights the difficulty of diagnosing mycotoxicoses in the field and the need for ongoing research to reduce the occurrence of mycotoxins in Vietnamese maize.

Monitoring of Mycotoxins in Feed for Goats and Their Residues in Milk

<p>Aflatoxins are mainly produced by <em>Aspergillus flavus</em> and <em>A. parasiticus</em>, whereas <em>A. flavus</em>, under different conditions, also can produce cyclopiazonic acid (CPA). Several studies on mycotoxins in feed and cow milk have been reported, but the investigation of the co-occurrence of aflatoxins and CPA in feed and goat milk is an unprecedent study in Brazil. This study aimed to evaluate the presence of aflatoxins and cyclopiazonic acid in diets intended for dairy goats and their residues in milk in 10 familiar properties of Southwestern Sao Paulo region, totalizing 128 samples of feed and 120 samples of milk. Aflatoxins have been extracted and purified in an immunoaffinity column specific for aflatoxins B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2) and aflatoxin M1 (AFM1). The analyses for detection and quantification of toxins were performed by high-performance liquid chromatography. From the analyses of the feeds, 2.34% of these were contaminated with aflatoxin at levels ranging from: 3.65 to 36.93 ug/kg for AFB1; 0.35 to 2.46 ug/kg for AFB2; trace to 46.06 ug/ kg for AFG1 and 0.61 to 1.65 ug/ kg for AFG2. One sample showed a concentration of 87.1 ug/kg, above that allowed by Brazilian law. Concerning CPA, 3.12% of the feed samples were positive for it at concentrations ranging from trace to 1.90 ug/kg. AFM1 and CPA were not detected in the milk samples. The results demonstrate that low contamination by mycotoxins in feeds and the absence of AFM1 and CPA in milk indicate best practices in the management and storage of these feeds.</p>

Water availability and calcium propionate affect fungal population and aflatoxins production in broiler finisher feed during storage

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of calcium propionate, water activity (aw) and incubation time on the total fungal count and aflatoxins B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2) production in the broiler finisher feed. The feed was added with calcium propionate (5 g kg–1), adjusted to 0.85, 0.90 and 0.95 aw and stored for 28 days at 25°C, analysing for mould growth and aflatoxins production every 7 days. Analysis of variance indicated that all the factors (preservative, aw and storage time) alone and in combination significantly (p < 0.001) affected the total fungal count and aflatoxins production in the feed. Minimum total fungal counts (1.99 × 102 CFU g–1) were observed in calcium propionate feed at 0.85 aw on day 1 and the highest (4.36 × 109 CFUs g–1) in control sample at 0.95 aw on day 28 of storage. During the storage period, AFB1 content in control samples increased from 11.35 to 73.44, from 11.58 to 81.81 and from 11.54 to 102.68 ng g–1, whereas in preserved feed the content of B1 increased from 11.47 to 37.83, from 11.54 to 49.07 and from 11.20 to 53.14 ng g–1 at 0.85, 0.90 and 0.95 aw, respectively. Similar patterns were noted for AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2 contents. All the aflatoxins readily increased over storage time; however, the increase was much slower in preserved feed that contained a lower amount of available water. This study reveals that calcium propionate addition to poultry litter along with water activity amelioration is an effective tool for controlling mould incidence and aflatoxin production in poultry feed.

Development and validation of a high-performance liquid chromatography method with post-column derivatization for the detection of aflatoxins in cereals and grains.

A novel, reliable and rapid high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method with post-column derivatization was developed and validated. The HPLC method was used for the simultaneous determination of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2) in various cereals and grains. Samples were extracted with 80:20 (v/v) methanol:water and purified using C18 (40-63 μm) solid-phase extraction cartridges. AFs were separated using a LiChroCART-RP-18 (5 μm, 250 × 4.0 mm(2)) column. The mobile phase consisted of methanol:acetonitrile:buffer (17.5:17.5:65 v/v) (pH 7.4) delivered at the flow rate of 1.0 mL min(-1) The fluorescence of each AF was detected at λex = 365 nm and λem = 435 nm. All four AFs were properly resolved within the total run time of 20 min. The established method was extensively validated as a final verification of the method development by the evaluation of selectivity (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2), linearity (R(2) ≥ 0.9994), precision (average SD ≤ 2.79), accuracy (relative mean error ≤ -5.51), robustness (p < 0.0080), ruggedness (p < 0.0100) and average recoveries (89.2-97.8%). The limits of quantification of AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2 were 0.080, 0.073, 0.062 and 0.066 ng g(-1), respectively. Finally, the developed method was applied for the analysis of AFs in 45 samples comprising rice (n = 20), wheat (n = 15) and maize (n = 10). The results showed that 65% of rice, 20% of wheat and 80% of maize samples were found contaminated with AFs. Thus, according to the achieved results, it is suggested that the newly developed HPLC method could be effectively applied for the routine analysis of the AFs in different cereals and grains.

Aflatoxins contamination in Pakistani brown rice: a comparison of TLC, HPLC, LC–MS/MS and ELISA techniques

Advancement in the field of analytical food-chemistry has explored various experimental techniques for aflatoxins (AFs) quantification. The present study was aimed to compare four different techniques; thin-layer chromatography (TLC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the analysis of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2) in brown rice (n = 120) being collected from Karachi, Pakistan. All the four assays provide precised, accurate and comparable results. However, some differences were observed. For instance, TLC, HPLC and LC–MS/MS methodologies offered the advantage of the quantification of individual toxins in contrast to ELISA technique. The contamination ranges of AFB1/AFB2 as determined by TLC, HPLC and LC–MS/MS were 1.18–9.97/0.59–1.52, 0.16–10.54/0.26–1.35 and 0.11–10.88/0.38–1.48 µg/kg, respectively. However, AFG1 and AFG2 were not detected in any tested samples. Furthermore, owing to low-detection limit and sensitivity, HPLC and LC–MS/MS methodologies have identified greater number of contaminated samples in comparison to TLC and ELISA techniques. The overall average results of total AFs as provided by HPLC (3.79 µg/kg) and LC–MS/MS (3.89 µg/kg) were found higher in comparison to TLC (3.68 µg/kg) and ELISA (3.70 µg/kg). On the basis of achieved results, it was concluded that TLC, HPLC, LC–MS/MS and ELISA techniques are valuable tool for the quantification of AFs in cereals and grains. Furthermore, HPLC and LC–MS/MS techniques offer an added advantage for the detection of AFs in diminutive levels.

Multi-mycotoxins analysis in ginger and related products by UHPLC-FLR detection and LC-MS/MS confirmation

The aim of this study was to optimize and validate a powerful method for the simultaneous analysis of aflatoxins B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), G2 (AFG2) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in ginger and related products collected from local markets in Beijing, China. The optimized analytical procedure was based on immunoaffinity column (IAC) clean-up, followed by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence (UHPLC-FLR) detection. Limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) for the five mycotoxins were 0.005–0.2 and 0.0125–0.5 μg kg−1, respectively. The average recoveries ranged from 84.2 to 97.3% with relative standard deviations (RSDs) from 0.63 to 7.86% at three spiking levels. Good linearity was observed for the analytes with correlation coefficients all higher than 0.9995. The established method was applied to 30 samples of 10 different species of ginger and related products, and all positive samples were confirmed by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The results showed that 5 samples of ginger products were contaminated with AFB1 at 0.13–1.38 μg kg−1, while 3 samples of ginger and 2 samples of ginger products were contaminated with OTA at 0.31–5.17 μg kg−1. All the contamination levels were below the legally allowable limits.

Mycotoxin co-occurrence in rice, oat flakes and wheat noodles used as staple foods in Ecuador

The co-occurrence of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin B1 (FB1), zearalenone (ZEN), and HT-2 and T-2 toxins in the main Ecuadorian staple cereals (rice, oat flakes, and yellow and white wheat noodles) was evaluated. A ultra high performance liquid chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC/TOFMS) method was developed and validated to screen for the presence of these mycotoxins in those cereal matrices. Matrix-matched calibration curves were used to compensate for ion suppression and extraction losses and the recovery values were in agreement with the minimum requirements of Regulation 401/2006/EC (70–110%). For most mycotoxins, the LODs obtained allowed detection in compliance with the maximum permitted levels set in Regulation EC/2006/1881, with the exception of OTA in all cereals and AFB1 in yellow noodles. Extra target analysis of OTA in oat flakes and wheat noodles was performed by HPLC with fluorescence detection. High rates of contamination were observed in paddy rice (23% DON, 23% FB1, 7% AFB1, 2% AFG1 and 2% AFG2), white wheat noodles (33% DON and 5% OTA) and oat flakes (17% DON, 2% OTA and 2% AFB1), whereas the rates of contamination were lower in polished rice (2% AFG1 and 4% HT-2 toxin) and yellow noodles (5% DON). Low rates of co-occurrence of several mycotoxins were observed only for white wheat noodles (5%) and paddy rice (7%). White noodles were contaminated with DON and/or OTA, while combinations of AFG1, AFB1, DON and FB1 were found in paddy rice. Yellow noodles were contaminated with DON only; oat flakes contained DON, OTA or AFB1, and polished rice was contaminated with AFG1 and HT-2 toxin.

Influence of calcium propionate, water activity and storage time on mold incidence and aflatoxins production in broiler starter feed

The effect of calcium propionate at a dose of 5g/kg on total fungal count and aflatoxins B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2) production in broiler starter feed stored at 0.85, 0.90 and 0.95aw was investigated at 7 days interval for 28 days. All the factors (preservative, aw and storage time) alone and in combination significantly (P<0.001) affected both the total fungal viable counts and aflatoxins production. Minimum total fungal counts (2.60log10CFU/g) were observed in calcium propionate added feed at 0.85aw on day 1st of experiment whereas the highest (9.11log10CFU/g) in control sample at 0.95aw on 28th day of storage. Regarding aflatoxins, minimum average contents of AFB1 (8.06ng/g), AFB2 (0.02ng/g) and AFG2 (0.01ng/g) were examined in preserved feed on day 1st of experiment at 0.90aw whereas the maximum amounts (173, 3.85, 4.20ng/g, respectively) were found in control samples at 0.95aw on 28th day of incubation. AFG1 content was lowest (2.05ng/g) in preserved feed at 0.95aw on the onset of experiment while the highest amount of the toxin (118ng/g) was noted in control diet at 0.95aw after 28 days of storage. It was concluded that preservative addition along with aw amelioration is a valuable tool for controlling molds incidence and aflatoxins contamination in poultry feed.

Reduction of mycotoxins in white pepper

A simple method for the reduction of aflatoxins B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), G2 (AFG2) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in white pepper was studied. Response surface methodology (RSM) was applied to determine the effect of four variables, which included time (20–60 min), temperature (30–70°C), calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) (0–1%) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) (1–3%) during the washing step of white pepper. The efficacy of the method was evaluated by the determination of mycotoxins by HPLC with fluorescence detection (FD). Statistical analysis showed that the experimental data could be adequately fitted into a second-order polynomial model, with a multiple regression coefficient (R 2) in the range of 0.805–0.907 for AFG2 and AFG1, respectively. The optimal condition was 57.8 min, 62.0°C, of 0.6% (w/v) and 2.8% (v/v) for time, temperature, Ca(OH)2 and H2O2 respectively. By applying the optimum condition, the mycotoxins reduction was found to be in the range of 68.5–100% for AFB2 and AFG1 respectively.

Occurrence of fumonisins and aflatoxins in cereals from markets of Hebei province of China

Fumonisins B1, B2 and B3 (FB1, FB2 and FB3) and aflatoxins B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2) are both major mycotoxins of food concern, because of their wide range of concentration and possible co-occurrence. Therefore, a contamination survey in corn and wheat flour by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry was carried out. Quantification of fumonisins and aflatoxins was based on internal calibration (by the use of 13C34-fumonisin) and external calibration, respectively. Fumonisins were detected in 95% of corn samples and in 7% of wheat flour samples, with the mean level (FB1 + FB2 + FB3) of 441 µg kg−1 and 0.09 µg kg−1, respectively. Low levels of aflatoxins were detected in 37% of the samples with a mean level (B1 + B2 + G1 + G2) of 0.12 µg kg−1. Fumonisins and aflatoxins were not detected in 29% of the samples analysed. Simultaneous occurrence of fumonisins and aflatoxins was observed in 12% of samples.