AFG1) And G2 Research Articles

Monitoring of Aflatoxins B1, G1, B2, and G2 in Spices from Riyadh Markets by Liquid Chromatography Coupled to Tandem Mass Spectrometry.

A total of 1053 samples of spices were collected from Riyadh markets during 2022. The contamination with aflatoxins (AF) B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), and G2 (AFG2) was determined via liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. AF extraction from spices was performed using an acetonitrile-formic acid mixture. The results obtained show that the highest value for AFB1 (3.865 μg/kg) was detected in the bay leaf sample, while the highest value for AFB2 (3.461 μg/kg) was found in red chili powder. The values of AFG1 and AFG2 did not exceed 2.59 μg/kg. The AF analysis shows that 24 out of 1053 samples (2.3%) contained one or more of these AFs. The highest percentage of contaminated samples was detected in black pepper. AFB1 was found in 21 samples of six types of spices, while AFG2 was detected in eight samples of four types of spices. Also, none of the samples exceeded the Saudi Food and Drug Authority and EU limits of 10 μg/kg. The present research is not a comprehensive study; however, it provides valuable information on AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2 levels in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia spices.

Occurrence, dietary exposure, and risk assessment of aflatoxins in wheat flour from Iran

ABSTRACT This study was performed to determine the concentration and assess the risk of aflatoxins (AFs) i.e. aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), and G2 (AFG2) in wheat whole and refined flour samples for Iranian adults. Sixty-five (60.19%) out of 108 analysed samples were positive for AFB1 and total AFs (AFB1+ AFB2+ AFG1+ AFG2). The range of AFB1 and the total AFs in samples were 0.14–7.34 and 0.34–7.61 µg kg−1, respectively. While, their means were 1.70 ± 0.22 and 2.15 ± 0.23, respectively. AFB1 level in 7 (6.48%) samples exceeded maximum limits allowed according to Iran standard (5 µg kg−1) while all samples had total AFs at an acceptable level (15 µg kg−1). The incidence and concentration of AFs in wheat whole flour samples were higher than that of refined flour one. The estimated daily intake (EDI), the margin of exposure (MOE), hepatocellular cancer risk of AFB1 through flour samples were 0.004 µg kg−1 bw day−1, 108.74 and 4.12 cases per 100,000 individuals/75 years, respectively. As EDI was more than the suggested value of 0.017 ng kg−1 bw day−1 and hepatocellular cancer risk was higher than the recommended level of 0.1 cases/75 years/100,000 individuals and MOE >10,000, it could be concluded AFs level in flour samples had a health potential risk to human health.

Changes in Aflatoxin Content During the Processing of Vinegar Obtained From Grape

Mycotoxins are known to be one of the most important food contaminants that pose potential health risks to humans. This study aimed to investigate the changes in total aflatoxin (TAF) content during grape vinegar production. Different types of aflatoxins including aflatoxin B1 (AFB1 ), B2 (AFB2 ), G1 (AFG1 ), and G2 (AFG2 ) were spiked into washed grape samples in the level of 5 μg/kg. Then grape samples were converted to vinegar. After different stages of vinegar processing including juicing, alcoholic fermentation, acetic acid fermentation, and pasteurization, sampling was performed and the level of each aflatoxin was measured using high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detector (HPLC-FD). Among different processing steps, the pasteurization operation had the least effect on the removal of aflatoxin. After juicing, the amount of AFB1 , AFB2 , AFG1 and AFG2 decreased by 14%, 11.18%, 13.77%, and 18.56%, respectively. Alcoholic fermentation had the greatest effect on the removal of aflatoxin so that it could reduce the levels of AFB1 , AFB2 , AFG1 and AFG2 by 41.87%, 45.34%, 45.37%, and 46.52%, respectively. Overall, during processing and conversion of grapes to vinegar, the values of AFB1 , AFB2 , AFG1 and AFG2 were reduced by 76.20%, 71.06%, 69.26%, and 75.85%, respectively. Processing grapes to vinegar can have a significant effect on the aflatoxin reduction.

Aspergillus section Flavi and aflatoxins in dried figs and nuts in Algeria

ABSTRACTThe presence of Aspergillus section Flavi and aflatoxin (AF) contamination was investigated in 112 samples of peanuts, almonds and dried figs collected in Algeria. The occurrence of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2) in different commodities has been determined with a sensitive method based on high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with fluorescence detection with post-column photochemical derivatisation. Analytical results indicated that 28 samples of peanuts, 16 samples of almonds and 26 samples of dried figs contained detectable levels of AFs. A total of 69 samples (61.6%) were contaminated with AFB1 ranging from the limit of quantification to 174 µg kg−1. AFB2 was found in 12 samples (10.7%) and varied from 0.18 to 193 µg kg−1. Seven samples revealed AF concentrations lower than the limit of quantification. Eleven peanut and fourteen dried fig samples exceeded the European maximum limits for AFB1.

Monitoring of Mycotoxins in Feed for Goats and Their Residues in Milk

<p>Aflatoxins are mainly produced by <em>Aspergillus flavus</em> and <em>A. parasiticus</em>, whereas <em>A. flavus</em>, under different conditions, also can produce cyclopiazonic acid (CPA). Several studies on mycotoxins in feed and cow milk have been reported, but the investigation of the co-occurrence of aflatoxins and CPA in feed and goat milk is an unprecedent study in Brazil. This study aimed to evaluate the presence of aflatoxins and cyclopiazonic acid in diets intended for dairy goats and their residues in milk in 10 familiar properties of Southwestern Sao Paulo region, totalizing 128 samples of feed and 120 samples of milk. Aflatoxins have been extracted and purified in an immunoaffinity column specific for aflatoxins B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2) and aflatoxin M1 (AFM1). The analyses for detection and quantification of toxins were performed by high-performance liquid chromatography. From the analyses of the feeds, 2.34% of these were contaminated with aflatoxin at levels ranging from: 3.65 to 36.93 ug/kg for AFB1; 0.35 to 2.46 ug/kg for AFB2; trace to 46.06 ug/ kg for AFG1 and 0.61 to 1.65 ug/ kg for AFG2. One sample showed a concentration of 87.1 ug/kg, above that allowed by Brazilian law. Concerning CPA, 3.12% of the feed samples were positive for it at concentrations ranging from trace to 1.90 ug/kg. AFM1 and CPA were not detected in the milk samples. The results demonstrate that low contamination by mycotoxins in feeds and the absence of AFM1 and CPA in milk indicate best practices in the management and storage of these feeds.</p>

Water availability and calcium propionate affect fungal population and aflatoxins production in broiler finisher feed during storage

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of calcium propionate, water activity (aw) and incubation time on the total fungal count and aflatoxins B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2) production in the broiler finisher feed. The feed was added with calcium propionate (5 g kg–1), adjusted to 0.85, 0.90 and 0.95 aw and stored for 28 days at 25°C, analysing for mould growth and aflatoxins production every 7 days. Analysis of variance indicated that all the factors (preservative, aw and storage time) alone and in combination significantly (p < 0.001) affected the total fungal count and aflatoxins production in the feed. Minimum total fungal counts (1.99 × 102 CFU g–1) were observed in calcium propionate feed at 0.85 aw on day 1 and the highest (4.36 × 109 CFUs g–1) in control sample at 0.95 aw on day 28 of storage. During the storage period, AFB1 content in control samples increased from 11.35 to 73.44, from 11.58 to 81.81 and from 11.54 to 102.68 ng g–1, whereas in preserved feed the content of B1 increased from 11.47 to 37.83, from 11.54 to 49.07 and from 11.20 to 53.14 ng g–1 at 0.85, 0.90 and 0.95 aw, respectively. Similar patterns were noted for AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2 contents. All the aflatoxins readily increased over storage time; however, the increase was much slower in preserved feed that contained a lower amount of available water. This study reveals that calcium propionate addition to poultry litter along with water activity amelioration is an effective tool for controlling mould incidence and aflatoxin production in poultry feed.

Development and validation of a high-performance liquid chromatography method with post-column derivatization for the detection of aflatoxins in cereals and grains.

A novel, reliable and rapid high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method with post-column derivatization was developed and validated. The HPLC method was used for the simultaneous determination of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2) in various cereals and grains. Samples were extracted with 80:20 (v/v) methanol:water and purified using C18 (40-63 μm) solid-phase extraction cartridges. AFs were separated using a LiChroCART-RP-18 (5 μm, 250 × 4.0 mm(2)) column. The mobile phase consisted of methanol:acetonitrile:buffer (17.5:17.5:65 v/v) (pH 7.4) delivered at the flow rate of 1.0 mL min(-1) The fluorescence of each AF was detected at λex = 365 nm and λem = 435 nm. All four AFs were properly resolved within the total run time of 20 min. The established method was extensively validated as a final verification of the method development by the evaluation of selectivity (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2), linearity (R(2) ≥ 0.9994), precision (average SD ≤ 2.79), accuracy (relative mean error ≤ -5.51), robustness (p < 0.0080), ruggedness (p < 0.0100) and average recoveries (89.2-97.8%). The limits of quantification of AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2 were 0.080, 0.073, 0.062 and 0.066 ng g(-1), respectively. Finally, the developed method was applied for the analysis of AFs in 45 samples comprising rice (n = 20), wheat (n = 15) and maize (n = 10). The results showed that 65% of rice, 20% of wheat and 80% of maize samples were found contaminated with AFs. Thus, according to the achieved results, it is suggested that the newly developed HPLC method could be effectively applied for the routine analysis of the AFs in different cereals and grains.

Aflatoxins contamination in Pakistani brown rice: a comparison of TLC, HPLC, LC–MS/MS and ELISA techniques

Advancement in the field of analytical food-chemistry has explored various experimental techniques for aflatoxins (AFs) quantification. The present study was aimed to compare four different techniques; thin-layer chromatography (TLC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the analysis of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2) in brown rice (n = 120) being collected from Karachi, Pakistan. All the four assays provide precised, accurate and comparable results. However, some differences were observed. For instance, TLC, HPLC and LC–MS/MS methodologies offered the advantage of the quantification of individual toxins in contrast to ELISA technique. The contamination ranges of AFB1/AFB2 as determined by TLC, HPLC and LC–MS/MS were 1.18–9.97/0.59–1.52, 0.16–10.54/0.26–1.35 and 0.11–10.88/0.38–1.48 µg/kg, respectively. However, AFG1 and AFG2 were not detected in any tested samples. Furthermore, owing to low-detection limit and sensitivity, HPLC and LC–MS/MS methodologies have identified greater number of contaminated samples in comparison to TLC and ELISA techniques. The overall average results of total AFs as provided by HPLC (3.79 µg/kg) and LC–MS/MS (3.89 µg/kg) were found higher in comparison to TLC (3.68 µg/kg) and ELISA (3.70 µg/kg). On the basis of achieved results, it was concluded that TLC, HPLC, LC–MS/MS and ELISA techniques are valuable tool for the quantification of AFs in cereals and grains. Furthermore, HPLC and LC–MS/MS techniques offer an added advantage for the detection of AFs in diminutive levels.

Mycotoxin co-occurrence in rice, oat flakes and wheat noodles used as staple foods in Ecuador

The co-occurrence of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin B1 (FB1), zearalenone (ZEN), and HT-2 and T-2 toxins in the main Ecuadorian staple cereals (rice, oat flakes, and yellow and white wheat noodles) was evaluated. A ultra high performance liquid chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC/TOFMS) method was developed and validated to screen for the presence of these mycotoxins in those cereal matrices. Matrix-matched calibration curves were used to compensate for ion suppression and extraction losses and the recovery values were in agreement with the minimum requirements of Regulation 401/2006/EC (70–110%). For most mycotoxins, the LODs obtained allowed detection in compliance with the maximum permitted levels set in Regulation EC/2006/1881, with the exception of OTA in all cereals and AFB1 in yellow noodles. Extra target analysis of OTA in oat flakes and wheat noodles was performed by HPLC with fluorescence detection. High rates of contamination were observed in paddy rice (23% DON, 23% FB1, 7% AFB1, 2% AFG1 and 2% AFG2), white wheat noodles (33% DON and 5% OTA) and oat flakes (17% DON, 2% OTA and 2% AFB1), whereas the rates of contamination were lower in polished rice (2% AFG1 and 4% HT-2 toxin) and yellow noodles (5% DON). Low rates of co-occurrence of several mycotoxins were observed only for white wheat noodles (5%) and paddy rice (7%). White noodles were contaminated with DON and/or OTA, while combinations of AFG1, AFB1, DON and FB1 were found in paddy rice. Yellow noodles were contaminated with DON only; oat flakes contained DON, OTA or AFB1, and polished rice was contaminated with AFG1 and HT-2 toxin.

Influence of calcium propionate, water activity and storage time on mold incidence and aflatoxins production in broiler starter feed

The effect of calcium propionate at a dose of 5g/kg on total fungal count and aflatoxins B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2) production in broiler starter feed stored at 0.85, 0.90 and 0.95aw was investigated at 7 days interval for 28 days. All the factors (preservative, aw and storage time) alone and in combination significantly (P<0.001) affected both the total fungal viable counts and aflatoxins production. Minimum total fungal counts (2.60log10CFU/g) were observed in calcium propionate added feed at 0.85aw on day 1st of experiment whereas the highest (9.11log10CFU/g) in control sample at 0.95aw on 28th day of storage. Regarding aflatoxins, minimum average contents of AFB1 (8.06ng/g), AFB2 (0.02ng/g) and AFG2 (0.01ng/g) were examined in preserved feed on day 1st of experiment at 0.90aw whereas the maximum amounts (173, 3.85, 4.20ng/g, respectively) were found in control samples at 0.95aw on 28th day of incubation. AFG1 content was lowest (2.05ng/g) in preserved feed at 0.95aw on the onset of experiment while the highest amount of the toxin (118ng/g) was noted in control diet at 0.95aw after 28 days of storage. It was concluded that preservative addition along with aw amelioration is a valuable tool for controlling molds incidence and aflatoxins contamination in poultry feed.

Occurrence of fumonisins and aflatoxins in cereals from markets of Hebei province of China

Fumonisins B1, B2 and B3 (FB1, FB2 and FB3) and aflatoxins B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2) are both major mycotoxins of food concern, because of their wide range of concentration and possible co-occurrence. Therefore, a contamination survey in corn and wheat flour by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry was carried out. Quantification of fumonisins and aflatoxins was based on internal calibration (by the use of 13C34-fumonisin) and external calibration, respectively. Fumonisins were detected in 95% of corn samples and in 7% of wheat flour samples, with the mean level (FB1 + FB2 + FB3) of 441 µg kg−1 and 0.09 µg kg−1, respectively. Low levels of aflatoxins were detected in 37% of the samples with a mean level (B1 + B2 + G1 + G2) of 0.12 µg kg−1. Fumonisins and aflatoxins were not detected in 29% of the samples analysed. Simultaneous occurrence of fumonisins and aflatoxins was observed in 12% of samples.

Production of M-/GM-group aflatoxins catalyzed by the OrdA enzyme in aflatoxin biosynthesis

Aspergillus parasiticus produces the minor aflatoxins M1 (AFM1), M2 (AFM2), GM1 (AFGM1), and GM2 (AFGM2), as well as the major aflatoxins B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), and G2 (AFG2). Feeding of A. parasiticus with aspertoxin (12c-hydroxyOMST) caused AFM1 and AFGM1, and cell-free experiments using the microsomal fraction of A. parasiticus and aspertoxin caused production of AFM1, indicating that aspertoxin is a precursor of AFM1 and AFGM1. Feeding of the same fungus with O-methylsterigmatocystin (OMST) caused AFM1 and AFGM1 together with AFB1 and AFG1; feeding with dihydroOMST (DHOMST) caused AFM2 and AFGM2 together with AFB2 and AFG2. Incubation of either the microsomal fraction or OrdA enzyme-expressing yeast with OMST caused production of aspertoxin together with AFM1 and AFB1. These results demonstrated that the OrdA enzyme catalyzes both 12c-hydroxylation reaction from OMST to aspertoxin and the successive reaction from aspertoxin to AFM1. In contrast, feeding of the fungus with AFB1 did not produce any AFM1, demonstrating that M-/GM-aflatoxins are not produced from B-/G-aflatoxins. Furthermore, AFM1 together with AFB1 and AFG1 was also produced from 11-hydroxyOMST (HOMST) in feeding experiment of A. parasiticus, whereas no aflatoxins were produced when used the ordA deletion mutant. These results demonstrated that OrdA enzyme can also catalyze 12c-hydroxylation of HOMST to produce 11-hydroxyaspertoxin, which serves as a precursor for the production of AFM1 and AFGM1. The same pathway may work for the production of AFM2 and AFGM2 from DHOMST and dihydroHOMST through the formation of dihydroaspertoxin and dihydro-11-hydroxyaspertoxin, respectively.

Aflatoxins and ochratoxin a reduction in black and white pepper by gamma radiation

Irradiation is an important means of decontamination of food commodities, especially spices. The aim of the current study was to investigate the efficacy of gamma radiation (60Co) for decontaminating ochratoxin A (OTA) and aflatoxins B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2) residues in artificially contaminated black and white pepper samples. The moisture content of the pepper samples was set at 12% or 18%, and the applied gamma dose ranged from 5 to 30kGy. Mycotoxin levels were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) after immunoaffinity column (IAC) chromatography. Both the gamma irradiation dose and moisture content showed significant effects (P<0.05) on mycotoxin reduction. The maximum toxin reductions, found at 18% moisture content and 30kGy, were 55.2%, 50.6%, 39.2%, 47.7% and 42.9% for OTA, AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2, respectively.

The Effect of Substrate, Season, and Agroecological Zone on Mycoflora and Aflatoxin Contamination of Poultry Feed from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

To study the effects of and interactions among feed types, seasons, and agroecological zones on the total fungal viable count and aflatoxins B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), and G2 (AFG2) production in poultry feed, an experiment was conducted using three-factorial design. A total of 216 samples of poultry feed ingredients, viz. maize, wheat, rice, cotton seed meal (CSM), and finished products, that is, starter and finisher broilers' rations, were collected from Peshawar, Swat, and D. I. Khan districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, during the winter, spring, summer, and autumn seasons of the year 2007/2008. Analysis of variance showed that there was a complex interaction among all these factors and that this influenced the total fungal viable count and relative concentrations of the aflatoxins produced. Minimum total culturable fungi (6.43 × 10³ CFUs/g) were counted in CSM from D. I. Khan region in winter season while maximum (26.68 × 10³ CFUs/g) in starter ration from Peshawar region in summer. Maximum concentrations of AFB1 (191.65 ng/g), AFB2 (86.85 ng/g), and AFG2 (89.90 ng/g) were examined during the summer season whereas the concentration of AFG1 was maximum (167.82 ng/g) in autumn in finisher ration from Peshawar region. Minimum aflatoxins were produced in the winter season across all the three agroecological zones.

Determination of aflatoxins in edible oil from markets in Hebei Province of China by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry

Analysis of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2) in 76 edible oil samples (peanut oil, soybean oil, corn embryo oil and blended oil) was performed by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS). The oils were sampled from three areas (Shijiazhuang, Baoding and Tangshan) of Hebei Province of China. AFB1 was detected in 22 samples representing 28.9%, followed by AFB2 (7.89%) and AFG1 (3.95%), while no AFG2 contamination was detected in any samples. AFB1 levels in oil samples ranged 0.14–2.72 µg kg−1 and AFB2 ranged 0.15–0.36 µg kg−1, while lower levels of 0.01–0.02 µg kg−1 for AFG1 were recorded. The paper is part of an on-going investigation of aflatoxin contamination in Chinese edible oils.

Determination of aflatoxins in cereals and oils by liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry

The high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry was applied for the determination of the aflatoxins: B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2), in cereals and oils. The samples were first extracted by ultrasonic method. The optimized conditions of ultrasonic extraction were as follows: temperature of 50 degrees C, extraction time of 3 min, methanol-water (containing 40 g/L NaCl) (80: 20, v/v) solution as the medium and a ratio of sample to solvent of 1 : 3 (g: mL). The extracts were then purified using an immunoaffinity column. The separation was performed on a C18 column with mobile phases of 10 mmol/L ammonium acetate and methanol in gradient elution. The sensitive detection of the four AFT compounds by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) was carried out in selected reaction monitoring (SRM) mode with aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) as the internal standard. Under the optimized conditions, the limits of detection of AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2 were 0.002, 0.004, 0.004 and 0.012 microg/kg, respectively. The recoveries of aflatoxins in different spiked cereals and oils were in the range from 87% to 111%. The intra-day and inter-day precisions were not more than 6.7% and 5.6%, respectively. In comparison with the external standard method, this method can effectively inhibit the matrix effects, and greatly improve the accuracy.

Aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in stored barley grain in Spain and impact of PCR-based strategies to assess the occurrence of aflatoxigenic and ochratoxigenic Aspergillus spp.

Contamination of barley by moulds and mycotoxins results in quality and nutritional losses and represents a significant hazard to the food chain. The presence of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in stored barley in Spain has been studied. Species-specific PCR assays were used for detection of Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus, A. ochraceus, A. steynii, A. westerdijkiae, A. carbonarius and A. niger aggregate in mycotoxin-positive barley samples at different incubation times (0, 1 and 2 days). Classical enumeration techniques (CFU/g) in different culture media for evaluation of Aspergillus in sections Flavi, Circumdati and Nigri were also used. One hundred and five barley kernel samples were collected in Spanish grain stores from 2008 to 2010, and analyzed using a previously optimized method involving accelerated solvent extraction, cleanup by immunoaffinity column, liquid chromatographic separation, post-column derivatization with iodine and fluorescence detection. Twenty-nine samples were contaminated with at least one of the studied mycotoxins. AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, and OTA were detected in 12.4%, 2.9%, 4.8%, 2.9%, and 20% of the samples, respectively. Aflatoxins and OTA co-occurred in 4.8% of the samples. Maximum mycotoxin levels (ng/g) were 0.61 (AFB1), 0.06 (AFB2), 0.26 (AFG1), 0.05 (AFG2), and 2.0 (OTA). The results of PCR assays indicated the presence of all the studied species, except A. westerdijkiae. The PCR assays showed high levels of natural contamination of barley with the studied species of Aspergillus which do not correspond to the expected number of CFU/g in the cultures. These results suggest that a high number of non-viable spores or hyphae may exist in the samples. This is the first study carried out on the levels of aflatoxins and OTA in barley grain in Spain. Likewise, this is the first report on the presence of aflatoxigenic and ochratoxigenic Aspergillus spp. in barley grain naturally contaminated with those mycotoxins using a species-specific PCR approach.

Screening of Aflatoxins and Zearalenone in feedstuffs and complete feeds for pigs in Southern Vietnam

A survey ofaflatoxins and zearalenone (ZEA) in 120 samples, including cassava chip (12), maize (12), rice bran (24), broken rice (24), and complete feeds for growing pigs (24) and sows (24) was carried out in southern Vietnam. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2) were determined by an HPLC method using an immunoaffinity column for clean-up. Zearalenone was analysed by Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) AgraQuant. High incidences of aflatoxins and ZEA in feedstuffs and pig feeds (83.3%-100%) were detected. Aflatoxins and ZEA were detected in all commodities analyzed. Aflatoxin B1 was found in 100, 92, 92, 83, 100 and 96%, respectively, of samples of cassava chip, maize, rice bran, broken rice, and complete feeds for growing pigs and sows, with mean concentrations of 0.86, 77.5, 1.3, 1.6, 4.7 and 7.5 microg/kg, respectively. AFB2 and AFG1 were found in low concentrations and co-occurred with AFB1 in all samples where they were found. ZEA was detected in 8%, 33%, 36%, 21%, 67% and 67%, respectively, of the samples of cassava chip, maize, rice bran, broken rice, and complete feeds for growing pigs and sows, with average concentrations of 10.0, 163.5, 83.1, 31.4, 86.0 and 101.4 microg/kg, respectively. The high incidence of mycotoxins found in feedstuffs highlights the need for periodic monitoring and prevention ofmycotoxins, not only in feeds, but also in food for human consumption.

Reduction of Aflatoxins by Extrusion‐Cooking of Rice Meal

ABSTRACT: The objective of this work was to determine the reduction of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), and G2 (AFG2) as a function of initial moisture content of samples (24%, 27%, and 30%), barrel temperature (140, 170, and 200 °C), and residence time (30 to 70 s) when artificially contaminated rice meal was extrusion‐cooked. Extruded and unextruded samples were analyzed by high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Extrusion‐cooking was observed to reduce aflatoxin (AF) content, which ranged from 51% to 95% depending on the type of AF and the studied variables. Only in the case of AFG2 was it found that the higher the temperature, the higher the moisture content, and the longer the residence time, the greater the reduction. Moisture content had a significant influence on reducing AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2 whereas it was not a significant factor affecting the levels of AFB1. Regardless of the type of AF, the lowest reductions were achieved at a temperature of 140 °C. Even though theoretically greater losses would be expected at highest temperature, AFB1 and AFB2 were more reduced by 170 °C than by 200 °C while AFG1 reductions were not statistically different when processing at 170 °C and 200 °C. The decrease of AF followed 1st‐order kinetics; the fastest treatment in reducing AF was that at 200 °C when samples containing AFG2 were wetted to 24% and when samples containing AFB1, AFB2, and AFG1 were hydrated to 27%. By contrast, the slowest treatments were observed at a barrel temperature of 140 °C.

Aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and zearalenone in maize-based food products

The occurrence of aflatoxins B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2 ), G1 (AFG1 ) and G2 (AFG2 ), ochratoxin A (OA) and zearalenone (ZEA) was evaluated in 121 maize-based food samples collected in the commerce of Maringa City, Parana State, Brazil. The study was carried out between January 2002 and February 2003. Thin-layer chromatographic method was used to determine the mycotoxins. The recovery averages were 106.6%, 109.4%, 106.6%, 109.4%, 101.8% and 101.7% to AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, OA and ZEA, respectively. Three samples (2.5%) were positive to AFB1 (8 to 59 µg/kg), two (1.7%) to AFB2 (2.4 µg/kg), one (0.8%) to OA (64 µg/kg) and one (0.8%) to ZEA (448 µg/kg). The greater frequency of positive samples and also the highest concentration of AFB1 were found in popcorn samples (8.3%, 59 µg/kg). The data showed a low frequency of mycotoxins in products based on maize traded in Maringa, but the Probable Average Daily Intake (PDI) of AFB1 in them was high. Therefore, it is necessary to accomplish an active vigilance of these mycotoxins in such food products in order to provide safety to Brazilian people health.