Affirmative Action Practices Research Articles

INVESTIGATING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE AFFIRMATIVE ACT AS A TOOL FOR EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES OF A SELECTED GOVERNMENT MINISTRY IN NAMIBIA FROM 2016 TO 2021

Motivation for the study: It has been observed that when affirmative action issues are not addressed then they impact service delivery. Secondly, there appears to be fewer studies in the area of affirmative action, particularly in the Namibian Government, especially in relation to affirmative action, particularly in the Directorate of General Services (DGS) head office in the Khomas region. Research approach: The study adopted a qualitative research approach with a case study research design. The data were collected through interviews and thematically analysed. Main results: Affirmative action is defined as measures premeditated in disregarding unlawful discrimination among employees. In investigating how the implementation of the Affirmative Action Policy is in performing, it was found out that the Affirmative Action Policy is only operational to a very limited extent. On assessing factors that hinder effective implementation of affirmative action, the study results show that lack of a monitoring policy, lack of training, lack of leadership interest, public perceptions and workplace discrimination contribute to the lack of the full realisation of affirmative practices in the DGS. In establishing measures that were put in place to implement and/or promote the Affirmative Action policy in DGS it was found that there were no attempts towards implementing affirmative action remedies. The study recommends mentoring and coaching programmes, initiating supervisory or monitoring boards, and conducting training and development programmes on affirmative action as essential strategies to promote ethical affirmative action practices. KEYWORDS: Affirmative action, effectiveness, employment opportunities, discrimination.

Asian Americans, Admissions, and College Choice: An Empirical Test of Claims of Harm Used in Federal Investigations

The Coalition of Asian American Associations (CAAA) and Asian American Coalition for Education (AACE), two small but vocal groups of Asian Americans, have argued against affirmative action practices. One of their more prominent claims is that Asian American applicants who are not accepted and do not attend their first-choice colleges face a multitude of negative consequences, a claim that has become the impetus for the current U.S. Department of Justice’s investigation into the college admissions process at a number of universities. This study empirically tests the claims made by CAAA and AACE with particular attention to the differences in Asian American student outcomes, relative to their college admissions and choice decisions. Our findings indicate a limited, if any, statistical difference between Asian American groups that attend differing choice institutions.

Designing more effective practices for reducing workplace inequality

To explore the effectiveness of behavioral policy interventions on workplace inequality, we focus on four categories of interventions: affirmative action practices, targeted human resource management, diversity training, and accountability and transparency practices. We assess the impact of each of these approaches on improving employment outcomes for women and underrepresented minorities, and we highlight the approaches’ key design features. On the basis of this review, we offer recommendations for developing and implementing organizational policies and practices to increase workforce diversity and career growth at all levels and to decrease discrimination in the workplace. We also suggest directions for researchers, organizations, policymakers, and regulatory bodies to pursue.

Designing more effective practices for reducing workplace inequality

To explore the effectiveness of behavioral policy interventions on workplace inequality, we focus on four categories of interventions: affirmative action practices, targeted human resource management, diversity training, and accountability and transparency practices. We assess the impact of each of these approaches on improving employment outcomes for women and underrepresented minorities, and we highlight the approaches' key design features. On the basis of this review, we offer recommendations for developing and implementing organizational policies and practices to increase workforce diversity and career growth at all levels and to decrease discrimination in the workplace. We also suggest directions for researchers, organizations, policymakers, and regulatory bodies to pursue.

Relationship Between Entrepreneurial Process and Success of Business of Entrepreneurs with Disability in Western Kenya, Kenya

Anchored on Empowerment theory, the study adopted a crosssectional research design on the Relationship between entrepreneurial process and success of business of entrepreneurs with disability in Western Kenya, Kenya. The target population was 73 registered businesses of entrepreneurs with disability. Saturated sampling was used in this study. The respondents were 69 business owners, out of which 4 were used for piloting, being 5-10% of sample size considered as a sufficient representation. Primary data were collected using structured questionnaires while secondary data were obtained through document review. The findings revealed that Entrepreneurial processes significantly contributed to business success (β=.609, t(69)=6.285, p=.000) and accounted for 37.1% change in business success (R 2=0.371, F(1,67=39.496, p=.000. The study concluded that an increase in entrepreneurial processes and procurement affirmative action practices will lead to improved business success. The study recommends that entrepreneurship stakeholders and the government assist in improving procurement practices for the persons with disabilities so as to help them improve on their businesses. The study is expected to inform policy makers both entrepreneurship stakeholders and the government on how entrepreneurial process can be used as a tool in improving persons with disabilities access to procurement opportunities and how to empower them.

With the eyes of society? Doing race in affirmative action practices in Brazil

ABSTRACTThis paper examines so-called verification commissions in Brazil that have to decide whether those who applied for affirmative action vacancies for black candidates ‘correctly’ declared themselves as such. Analyzing three repertoires through which the commissions take this decision, the paper shows how the subject that is entitled to affirmative action – the cotista (quota candidate) – comes into being in these classification practices. Discussing the tension between the idea of a social gaze – due to which ‘everybody’ knows who is black in Brazil – and that of a skilled gaze one has to learn in order to work in a verification commission, I show how the latter arises from the attempt to handle the contradictory demands the commissions are facing and how it helps to ‘objectivize’ the commissions’ decisions. By way of conclusion, I point out how my study can contribute to a better understanding of processes in which citizenship rights are granted ‘through the body’.

Occupying the Academy: Just How Important Is Diversity Work in Higher Education? ed. by Christine Clark, Kenneth J. Fasching-Varner, and Mark Brimhall-Vargas (review)

Reviewed by: Occupying the Academy: Just How Important Is Diversity Work in Higher Education? ed. by Christine Clark, Kenneth J. Fasching-Varner, and Mark Brimhall-Vargas Blanca E. Vega (bio) Christine Clark, Kenneth J. Fasching-Varner, and Mark Brimhall-Vargas, (Eds.). Occupying the Academy: Just How Important Is Diversity Work in Higher Education? New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2012. 253 pp. Cloth: $70.00. ISBN 978-1-4422-1272-5. Diversity work in education is the latest chapter in a long history of the struggle for social justice. Occupying the Academy: Just How Important Is Diversity Work in Higher Education?, edited by Christine Clark, Kenneth J. Fasching-Varner, and Mark Brimhall-Vargas, addresses the permanence of racism as manifested in higher education. The collected narratives and case studies presented in this book provide testimony about how racism evolves in an era that many people call "postracial," symbolized by the election of our nation's first Black president, Barack Obama. However, the case studies in this book also suggest that diversity workers, for all their best intentions, should name their work for what they are actually doing: race work. The authors divide the book's narratives into three areas: those from chief diversity officers, midlevel administrators, and faculty. The editors charged contributing authors to adhere to several guidelines: They must (a) understand multicultural organizational model concepts, (b) employ Critical Race Theory (CRT) and variations of CRT as conceptual frameworks for understanding diversity work, and (c) provide counter narratives as case studies for analyses. Despite the use of these frameworks that center race in research, however, "diversity" seemed to replace the word "race." Diversity work is the umbrella term for all work done in the name of social justice. Race work centers racial justice as a core value. In the foreword, Sonia Nieto makes this relationship apparent, but this focus does not remain clear throughout the book. Each case occurs at a public higher education institution, and all the narratives employ the same pseudonym, Acme, using, as a rationale, the fact that these stories can occur at many public institutions. There are a few exceptions: none of the cases occurred at minority-serving institutions (MSIs) and none (for reasons they do not explain) were situated in the "Pacific Northwest, Alaska, or Hawai'i" (p. 195). Despite these limitations, the editors argue that these stories are more common than we believe and must be written and published to record the ongoing history of racism in higher education. To understand diversity workers, the editors provide a brief historical background of the role of the chief diversity officer (CDO) in their introduction. The role of CDOs was shaped by private corporations to explain why these roles are often created without much power: "It is important to note that many Fortune 500 companies that signed the amicus brief in support of the University of Michigan's recent bid to protect affirmative action practices (Gratz v. Bollinger, 2003; Grutter v. Bollinger, 2003) have driven the emergence of the CDO position in the private sector and public higher education alike" (p. 2). The editors describe the complexities of diversity workers, particularly those who identify as people of color. Diversity workers of color often find themselves caught between two competing interests—demonstrating a united front with their colleagues, or speaking for their identity group (p. 3). The CDO is caught in contradictory roles. On the one hand, the existence of the CDO symbolizes an institution's seriousness about diversity work; but on the other, they bear the very real responsibility for diversity work, causing authors to ask: "Who is ultimately responsible for the success of institutionalized effort?" (p.89) Three themes prevail throughout the book: (a) difficulties with accomplishing diversity work in the postracial era, (b) understanding diversity knowledge, and asking (c) for whom is diversity work performed? First, all of the narratives demonstrate how difficult diversity work has become in the postracial era. The editors "thought it would get better" (p. xvii), an attitude that was clearly expressed in Case 1 (p. 26). This case reveals the difficulties of diversity work from the perspective of a White, female CDO. It also explores the impact of presidents with different understandings...

K-20: Examining The Critical Connections Of Racism And Whiteness Within Educational Policy

The author, a White gay man, utilizes a critical race theory lens to analyze historical precedents of race based educational policy as a way to further expand his understanding of the systemic nature of racism within the context of the American educational system and to make connections between his lived experiences in a low performing, high poverty public high school. Tracing policies from Plessy v. Ferguson to Gratz v. Bolinger, the author presents a historical analysis of policy to create a framework through which he analyzes and makes connections to present day affirmative action practices in higher education admission policies. Detailing the resegregation of America’s school systems through white flight and gerrymandering, the author examines concepts of Whiteness and the ways in which Whiteness is coded as racially neutral within policies. Concluding, the author argues that more attention should be paid to the connections between K-12 policies and higher education admissions policies that are centered upon race.

The College Access Debate: Class Considerations And College Preparation

The college access debate in America remains an important one. Affirmative action policies and practices continue to occupy a significant sub-component of the overall college access discussion. Recent legal debates and policy changes pertaining to affirmative action have encouraged analysis surrounding the overall viability and fairness of these policies. This article describes the current parameters and arguments surrounding the college access debate in America in relation to affirmative action practices and makes suggestions as to how these practices can be improved. Three major aims of the article are to articulate the shortcomings of affirmative action practices in their current forms, to investigate the potential benefits of considering students’ social-class backgrounds when making affirmative action admissions decisions at institutions of higher education, and to ultimately point out that college access factors prior to and following the admissions process, such as college preparation and the degree of support mechanisms in place after matriculation, are potentially more important to the access debate than affirmative action considerations. This article concludes that all students can significantly benefit from exposure to higher education and that affirmative action policies should address social class in some capacity or be abandoned.

Perceptions of the dimensions of the fairness of affirmative action: A pilot study

The purpose of this study was to identify the dimensions of affirmative action (AA) fairness in order to develop a valid and reliable questionnaire to assess employees’ perceptions of the fairness of AA decisions and practices, and to explore the relationship between employees’ biographical characteristics and their perceptions of the dimensions of AA fairness. The research sample consisted of 349 participants connected to a large financial institution in South Africa. Principal axis factor analysis with a varimax rotation was performed on the data in order to uncover the different factors that employees perceived to be important for the fair and just management of affirmative action practices. Four factors define AA fairness: namely interactional, procedural (input), procedural (criteria) and distributive justice. One-way MANOVAs and associated ANOVAs revealed that the importance of the justice factors in AA fairness differed significantly across ethnicity and staff category. This study enables a better understanding of the dimensionality of AA fairness. It should ultimately contribute to more effective management of AA in the workplace.

Race as Mission Critical: The Occupational Need Rationale in Military Affirmative Action and beyond

In Grutter v. Bollinger, the much-anticipated case challenging affirmative action practices at the University of Michigan Law School, the Supreme Court held for the first time that “obtaining the educational benefits that flow from a diverse student body” represents a compelling state interest. Adopting much of Justice Powell’s analysis from the landmark Bakke case, the Grutter majority emphasized that racial diversity within a student body promotes the “‘robust exchange of ideas,’” and renders classroom discussions “‘more enlightening and interesting.’” The Court further reasoned that universities deserve substantial leeway in making admissions decisions because they are uniquely positioned to assess the pedagogical values associated with racial diversity. Notably, however, the Court did not confine its analysis of the educational benefits of diversity to matters concerning the quality of the educational experience at the University of Michigan. Rather, it relied heavily on a separate strand of argument that emphasized the need to

Racial Diversity in Higher Education

Many colleges and universities purport to desire racial diversity, yet few make considerable progress in this regard. Why are some schools much more successful than others? This author compared colleges/universities that have achieved relatively high percentages of African American and Latino American students and faculty to those with low percentages. Semistructured interviews were used to gather information about each school. At the successful schools, more people participate in diversity efforts, and administrators more often have the time, mandate, and power to be effective. The successful schools employ a wider variety of affirmative action practices, and these practices are more often proactive, involve persons of color, include curriculum and co-curriculum intervention, and address root causes of the problem. Employees and activists from the successful schools possess greater commitment to, and knowledge about, diversity. Finally, the campus climate at the successful schools offers greater support for racial diversity.

Affirmative Action in Higher Education

This study analyzed the variations of policies and practices of university personnel in their use of affirmative action programs for African American students. In this study, the policy topic is affirmative action and the practices used in admissions, financial aid, and special support services for African-American students. Surveys were mailed to 231 subjects representing thirty-two Missouri colleges and universities. Most of the survey respondents were male, white, and nearly two-thirds were above the age of forty. Ethnic minorities were underepresented among the professionals. Seventy-two percent of respondents were white, 23% were African American, and 5% were Hispanic. The results of this study suggest a positive picture of student affirmative action practices and policies used by Missouri personnel. Differences among professionals were at a minimum. The overall mean score for support in diversifying Missouri institutions was fairly high, and this may reflect diversity initiatives taken by the Missouri Coordinating Board for Higher Education in the late 1980s, and early 1990s. Data suggested that Missouri personnel are aware of the judicial scrutiny by the courts in administering student affirmative action. Most Missouri institutions use a single process for assessing all applicants for admission, without reliance on a quota system. The recent Hopwood decision showed little impact on the decisions regarding professionals' use of student affirmative action at Missouri institutions. Although public attitudes toward student affirmative action may play a role in establishing policies and practices, Missouri personnel are very similar in their perceptions regardless of race/ethnicity, gender, and institutional office or position.

Hispanic Law Students’ Perceptions of Discrimination, Justice, and Career Prospects

In this study,ethnic and gender discrimination perceived by minority students was investigated in a sample of 118 Hispanic law school students. Despite governmental efforts at promoting affirmative action practices,perceived discrimination can act as a barrier in the legal profession that keeps minority and female attorneys from advancing in the profession. Results were consistent with the hypotheses,suggesting that (a) female students anticipated more discrimination in the legal profession than male students; (b) the higher the perceived discrimination,the less fair the students perceived the promotion process in their future law firm will be; and (c) the lower the perceived fairness of the promotion process,the lower the satisfaction with their chosen career (the law profession) and the lower the respondents’ perceived career prospects. Practical implications and avenues for future research are discussed.

Race, jobs, and the war: the FEPC in the Midwest, 1941-46

The President's Committee on Fair Employment Practice (FEPC) was established by Franklin Roosevelt in response to an intense lobbying campaign led by black leaders who challenged his administration to eliminate racial discrimination in U.S. defense plants. In this rigorous and thoroughly documented examination of the FEPC's work, focusing on the pivotal Midwest, Andrew Edmund Kersten shows how this tiny government agency influenced the course of civil rights reform and moved the United States closer to a national fair employment policy. Race, Jobs, and the War looks across the Midwest at the accomplishments and failures of a New Deal organization that laid the foundation for today's contested affirmative action practices. Rejecting claims that black advancement during the war was due primarily to shortages of labor, Kersten contends that the FEPC made significant strides in allaying discrimination, especially when local authorities cooperated.Efforts to foster racial equality in the southern region of the Midwest suffered from managerial stonewalling and white hostility, Kersten finds, while areas farther north saw more support from government officials and community and union activists and correspondingly greater success in reversing discriminatory patterns. Events such as the infamous Cincinnati 'D-Day' Strike - a wildcat strike by nine thousand white UAW-CIO workers in protest of the upgrading of seven black machinists - signal the depth of racial animosity on the home front. Fighting an uphill battle to dismantle such deep-seated and virulent racism, the FEPC succeeded in breaking some racial barriers, settling complaints, and pursuing a vigorous education campaign to foster more harmonious industrial relations between white and minority workers. The FEPC also acted as a catalyst, inspiring midwestern local communities to rejuvenate and transform their own fights against employment discrimination.

From Affirmative Action to Full Spectrum Diversity in the American Workplace

This article addresses the need to enhance both group diversity and individualism in the workplace by shifting attention away from affirmative action principles and strategies, as they are commonly implemented, and by focusing more on securing a comprehensive, or full spectrum, diversity in the workplace To do so, an accompanying shift in organizational paradigm must also occur, from one externally-driven to one that uses internally-based incentives to accomplish full spectrum diversity A workplace strategy is constructed which attempts to (1) eliminate the perceived or actual weaknesses found currently in many affirmative action practices and (2) maintain and enhance the asset of diversity m the American workplace.

The Contextualization of Affirmative Action

One purpose of this article is to chronicle the progression of affirmative action. A second purpose is to show how affirmative action has benefited all of society and not just a select few. The authors of this article move from a critique of the history of affirmative action to an assessment of the current political climate. It is argued that a rollback of affirmative action practices will have long-term effects on the educational and job opportunities available to women and minorities, but more important, a rollback will seriously alter the playing field and call into question the notion that “all men are created equal.”

Asian American Attitudes toward Affirmative Action in Employment

The authors applied the Fishbein and Ajzen theory of attitudes to understand Asian Americans' beliefs and attitudes toward affirmative action programs (AAPs) in employment, emphasizing the (dis)similarity of Asians' attitudes to those of Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics. In two studies involving more than 1,000 participants, the authors found evidence of greater attitudinal similarity among Asians, Blacks, and Hispanics than between Asians and Whites. Asian U.S. citizens reported significantly more experience with workplace discrimination than did Whites, about the same as Hispanics, and less than Blacks. These reports of discrimination were significantly and positively correlated with attitude toward AAPs. These results, which are contrary to the Model Minority Myth, are discussed along with implications for further research and for affirmative action practices.

Antecedents and outcomes of promotion systems

This study tests the Ferris, Buckley, and Allen (Human Resource Planning, 15, 47–68) model of promotion systems in organizations assessing the promotion systems in Fortune 500 companies in six industry groups. Relationships were found between characteristics of organizations (e.g., the extent of their career planning and their affirmative action practices and organizational outcomes including numbers of grievances filed, industry rank on sales, and employee attitudes concerning promotion opportunities. These results suggest that the Ferris, Buckley, and Allen (1992) model provides a useful framework for the study and development of organizations' promotion systems. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Affirmative Action and City Managers: Attitudes toward Recruitment of Women

Historical and contemporary patterns of recruiting women into the management of the local public sector generally parallel the patterns of blacks and members of other minority groups. Recent advances in the recruitment of women can be attributed in part to the passage of the 1972 Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) Act and its primary instrument of implementation, affirmative action. Equal employment opportunity means having a setting where discriminatory hiring practices are nonexistent. Affirmative action refers to special and exceptional efforts on the part of the public manager to rectify the results of current and previous discriminatory practices and, ultimately, to ensure equal employment opportunity. Since the 1972 enactment, affirmative action has been the primary mechanism for the development of a representative bureaucracy at the local level. While change is evident, from seven female city managers in 1971 to over 100 in 1986, the absence of greater numbers of women in decision-making circles calls into question some underlying assumptions made in the area of public personnel administration. Specifically, this study examines the extent to which city managers support the use of affirmative action practices in the recruitment of women into managerial positions. Analysis also focuses on several exogenous factors that help to explain the level of support which city managers have to undertake special and exceptional efforts to recruit women.