Affecting Smallholder Farmers Research Articles

Evaluating the Influence of Socioeconomic Factors on Smallholder Farmer's Social Media Adoption in the Nkomazi Local Municipality, Mpumalanga Province

Social media has the potential to provide enhanced and faster measures of disseminating agricultural information to smallholder farmers. This study investigated socioeconomic characteristics encompassing demographic factors affecting smallholder farmers' adoption of social media. The study focused on varying livestock and crop smallholder farmers, including cattle, goats, maize, sugarcane, and leguminous crop producers. A cross-sectional survey was employed to collect the data using a structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics and a Binary Logistic Regression was used to analyse the data. The sample size was 217 smallholder farmers. The results revealed that age, level of education, annual farming income, and cooperative membership were statistically significant (p < 0.05) in social media adoption. The study findings show that skills and training in ICT increase the probability of adopting social media, and the socioeconomic characteristics of smallholder farmers influence its adoption. The study concludes that stakeholders such as local government must improve smallholder farmers' basic literacy and skills in digital technology. It further recommends that policymakers formulate policies that provide the necessary infrastructure and supporting inputs such as open access internet, cell towers, and cooperative social media platforms that allow for interactive interactions with relevant stakeholders that provide advisory services.

Smallholder Sesame Producers’ Adaptation Decisions to Climate Change and Its Determinants in Western Ethiopia

The agricultural sector remains the main source of livelihood for rural communities in Ethiopia, but the challenge of changing climate continues to pose a serious threat to its development. This study investigated factors affecting smallholder farmers’ decisions to adopt adaptation options to climate change in West Ethiopia using data collected from 400 sampled households. The Rainfall Satisfaction Index and Multinomial Logit Model were used to analyze farmers’ exposure to climate variability and factors that shape farmers' adaptation strategies. The findings of the study showed that the majority of farmers are experiencing high exposure to climate change both in terms of variable rainfall and rising temperature. In response, to adapt to the impact of climate change farmers were participating in agronomic practices, livelihood diversification, soil and water conservation, and small-scale irrigation as the dominant adaptation options. It is also observed that adopting agronomic practices was significantly impacted by social capital, crop failure experience, and access to early warning. Gender of the household, education, and livestock ownership were found to have a negative relationship with livelihood diversification. The study further revealed that soil and water conservation measures are positively affected by perception of temperature increment, exposure to early warning systems, and larger size of cultivated land. In addition, the adoption of small-scale irrigation was significantly influenced by access to credit, social capital, and the educational status of household heads. Consequently, the result implies that programs and policies designed to curb the calamities of climate change should emphasize creating effective early warning systems to increase farmer awareness, reach farmers with effective microfinance institutions, and encourage farmers’ ties to many social cooperatives.

Factors affecting smallholder farmers’ local knowledge-based adaption to build resilience in Wolaita zone, Ethiopia

This study aims to identify factors affecting local adaptation strategies smallholder farmers are practising to adapt multiple stresses. Primary data were collected from 400 randomly sampled households from six districts of Wolaita zone by face-to-face interviews, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews. Survey data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. A binary logit model was employed to identify factors affecting smallholder farmers’ local adaptation strategies. A total of 15 explanatory variables, identified from relevant empirical literature, was included in the binary logit model to assess their relationship to the dependent variable – households’ decision to employ various local adaptations. The study found that eight of the explanatory variables such as age, farmland size, livestock owned, income, distance to market, extension agent visist, participation in the local organizations, and agro-ecology significantly influenced local adaption strategies. Additionally, qualitative data from focus group discussions and key informant interviews showed that the role and use of local adaptation have been ignored and marginalized. This study suggests the government should recognize the importance of local knowledge, multiple stakeholders should participate to enhance smallholders’ adaptabilities, interdisciplinary research is required, and communities should be supported to share their knowledge to build synergies between different knowledge systems.

Factors Affecting Smallholder Farmers' Adoption of Soybean Production Technologies in Kondala District Oromia Western Ethiopia

This study examines on the adoption and intensity of soybean production technology in the Kondala district. A two-stage sampling procedure was followed to select the sample households for the study. The study is based on primary data collected from 185 sample-selected households. Four rural kebeles were selected by using simple random sampling. The semi-structured interview schedule was developed, for collecting the essential quantitative data for the study and secondary data were used as additional data sources. Descriptive statistics and the Tobit model were used to analyse the data. This study also identifies soybean production technologies such as recommended seeding rate, recommended fertilizer applications, land allocation. The result of the descriptive statistics showed that the majority of farmers 57.3% were adopters and the remaining 42.7% were non adopters. In terms of land allocation and use of technologies there was a statistical significance difference in technology usage between adopters and non-adopters. The Tobit model results indicated that household ages, education level, farm experience, membership in cooperatives, access to agricultural inputs, participation in non-farm activities, and frequency of extension contact positively and significantly influenced the adoption and intensity of the use of soybean technologies. Whereas, distance from the market centre showed, a negative relationship with the adoption and intensity of adoption of soybeans production technology. The overall finding of the study underlined the high importance of institutional support in the areas of extension; membership in cooperatives and market to enhance the adoption of an improved soybean production package. Therefore, policy and development interventions should give emphasis to the improvement of such institutional support so as to achieve wider adoption which increases the productivity and income of smallholder farmers.

Is there a future for smallholder farmers in bioeconomy? The case of ‘improved’ seeds in South Punjab, Pakistan

Smallholder farmers are key players in agrarian value chains, particularly in the Global South. In the planning of technology-oriented agricultural interventions featured prominently in bioeconomy policies they are however often neglected. As global demand for food and biomass is expected to rise, production increase through (bio)technological means is framed as a necessity. Yet its ecological and social sustainability has been debated. We add to this debate by investigating the possibilities and challenges for smallholder farmers to participate in the intensification of production in an emerging bioeconomy. We scrutinize the case of Pakistan, an agricultural country where 65% of farms operate less than 2 ha of land and where bioeconomy approaches such as biotechnology and advanced plant breeding have gained momentum in policy debates. We specifically analyze a cornerstone of the bioeconomy value chain—namely ‘improved’ seed varieties by looking at the experiences of smallholder farmers with genetically modified cotton and hybrid maize. We build on qualitative data from South Punjab collected between 2019 and 2022. Smallholders value improved seeds. However, the poorest strata are hindered from adopting improved seed varieties due to lack of resources, established crop rotation patterns, and frequent oscillations of the cropping trends. Market and climatic factors also limit the profitability of improved seed varieties as higher input costs disproportionately affect smallholder farmers. Furthermore, highly productive crops and frequent crop cycles result in surging tenancy rates for smallholders and can lead to their expulsion from agriculture. Our results contribute to the understanding of the complex role of smallholder farmers in the Global South under a bioeconomy scenario.

Factors Influencing the Perceptions of Smallholder Farmers towards Adoption of Digital Technologies in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

The objective of the study was to determine the factors that influence the perceptions of smallholder farmers towards the adoption of digital technologies. A purposively selected sample of 250 smallholder farmers who were cross-sectionally surveyed from Port St Johns and Ingquza Hill Local Municipalities in South Africa was used in the study. The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and the Attention, Desire, and Action (AIDA) model were used to analyse the data. The results showed that digital technologies were perceived to be expensive, cause a digital divide, and discouraged the use of Indigenous Knowledge even though they increased production. Positive perception towards digital technologies was associated with cattle rearing, with extreme negative perception for sheep and goat rearing. Educational level, employment status, monthly income, household size, being part of a cooperative (1% level), age, and source of income (10% level) were significant factors affecting smallholder farmers’ perceptions of digital technologies. In conclusion, there are economic, social justice, and traditional perceptions towards digital technologies by smallholder farmers, with socio-economic factors affecting the perceptions. The study recommends providing low-cost digital technologies that promote Indigenous Knowledge, which should target the youth and young farmers with less education in small households who are full-time farmers with moderate-to-high incomes and are part of farmer groups/organisations.

Factors Affecting Adaptation Strategies of Small Holder Farmer’s to Climate Changes: Evidence from Dale Woreda in Sidama Regional State, Ethiopia

The objective of this study was to analyzing factors that affect smallholder farmers’ choice of adaptation strategy and identifies adaptation measures to climate change in Ethiopia using Dale Woreda as a case study. The data was collected from 359 sample households using a survey questionnaire and was analyzed using both descriptive statistics and econometric methods. Multinomial logit model (MNL) was used to identify factors influencing smallholder farmers’ choice of adaptation strategies to climate change and variability. The adaptation strategies considered in the MNL model were crop diversification, growing drought tolerant crop, soil and water management, early and late planting and small scale irrigation practice. The result from the multinomial logit analysis showed that sex, education, farm experience, family size, farm income, farm size, distance to the market, soil fertility, access to credit, access to climate information, and extension access were significant factors influencing smallholder farmers’ adaptation strategies. a unit increases in number of years of education could increase 8.1% of the likelihood of adopting crop diversification ,1.8% of the likelihood of adopting growing drought tolerant crop and 1.2% of the likelihood of early and late planting as adaptation measures. The basic barriers to climate change adaptation on the farmers’ side are lack of credit access, lack of knowledge, lack of support from government, shortage of farm land, lack of climate information and lack of climate related problem. Therefore, expanding extension service, improving the availability of credit and enhancing research on use of new crop diversification and distributing drought tolerant crop varieties and encouraging continuous climate training center, disseminating climate information by local language through social media and providing modern tool for soil and water management and small scale irrigation by government are more suited in three agro-ecological zones.

Factors Affecting Smallholder Farmers' Well-being: A Systematic Review

Factors Affecting Smallholder Farmers' Well-being: A Systematic Review

The possibilities of explicit Striga (Striga asiatica) risk monitoring using phenometric, edaphic, and climatic variables, demonstrated for Malawi and Zambia.

Food insecurity continues to affect more than two-thirds of the population in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), particularly those depending on rain-fed agriculture. Striga, a parasitic weed, has caused yield losses of cereal crops, immensely affecting smallholder farmers in SSA. Although earlier studies have established that Striga is a constraint to crop production, there is little information on the spatial extent of spread and infestation severity of the weed in some SSA countries like Malawi and Zambia. This study aimed to use remotely sensed vegetation phenological (n = 11), climatic (n = 3), and soil (n = 4) variables to develop a data-driven ecological niche model to estimate Striga (Striga asiatica) spatial distribution patterns over Malawi and Zambia, respectively. Vegetation phenological variables were calculated from 250-m enhanced vegetation index (EVI) timeline data, spanning 2013 to 2016. A multicollinearity test was performed on all 18 predictor variables using the variance inflation factor (VIF) and Pearson's correlationapproach. From the initial 18 variables, 12 non-correlated predictor variables were selected to predict Striga risk zones over the two focus countries. The variable "start of the season" (start of the rainy season) showed the highest model relevance, contributing 26.8% and 37.9% to Striga risk models for Malawi and Zambia, respectively. This indicates that the crop planting date influences the occurrence and the level of Striga infestation. The resultant occurrence maps revealed interesting spatial patterns; while a very high Striga occurrence was predicted for central Malawi and eastern Zambia (mono-cultural maize growing areas), lower occurrence rates were found in the northern regions. Our study shows the possibilities of integrating various ecological factors with a better spatial and temporal resolution for operational and explicit monitoring of Striga-affected areas in SSA. The explicit identification of Striga "hotspot" areas is crucial for effectively informing intervention activities on the ground.

Factors Affecting Smallholder Farmers’ Marketing Channel Choice in China with Multivariate Logit Model

Facing the changes in China’s agricultural products marketing channel, smallholder farmers with different characteristics choose various strategies to obtain more benefits. To analyze factors affecting smallholder farmers’ marketing channel choice, we classify four types of channels—Broker Channel, Farmers’ Retailing Channel, Wholesale Market Channel, and Cooperative Channel—and inspect 14 variables based on the survey data of 317 households from four provinces. We use a principal components analysis (PCA) to simplify these 14 variables into seven common factors and a multivariate logit model to study how the factors influence smallholder farmers’ choices. We find that compared with the Broker Channel, the Farmers’ Retailing Channel is mainly affected by the logistics factor, skill factor, risk factor, and size factor; the Wholesale Market Channel is influenced by the logistics factor and age factor; and the Cooperative Channel is mainly influenced by the age factor, logistics factor, and price factor. In conclusion, the logistics factor has a significant positive effect on each channel choice, and the improvement of the market and transportation conditions has a general promoting effect.

Global and local sustainable certification systems: Factors influencing RSPO and Thai-GAP adoption by oil palm smallholder farmers in Thailand

This paper investigates the factors that influence the adoption of RSPO and Thai-GAP certification by oil palm smallholder farmers in Thailand. A random sample of 77 RSPO certified, 108 non-certified RSPO, 87 Thai-GAP certified, and 67 non-certified Thai-GAP smallholder farmers were interviewed to investigate the factors explaining the RSPO and Thai-GAP scheme adoption, respectively. The logit model was used to analyse the relationships between the adoption and the decision-making factors of the farmers. The results show that membership of farmer groups, the goal of the scheme, and trust in the scheme are the most significant factors affecting the adoption of RSPO certification. Scheme payments have a negative influence on adoption. In case of Thai-GAP, the results show the scheme payment, the image, concerns about the quality of land and water, and trust in the scheme are the most significant factors affecting the adoption. Finally, these findings suggest new factors may be attributed to several issues, including trust in the scheme, membership of farmer groups, the scheme’s goal, and trust in the scheme are the most significant. Designing and extension in influencing factors may play multiple roles in driving smallholder farmers to adopt sustainable certification schemes. This finding repeats that the usability of sustainable certification schemes in developing countries needs to be mobilised around a particular socio-cultural context. Including, understanding the factors affecting smallholder farmers’ intention to adopt Thai-GAP or RSPO certification is very important to plan and promote these schemes among other farmers and transform the current cultivation practices into more sustainable palm oil production.

Socio-economic factors affecting smallholder farmers’ willingness to adopt biodigester technology in South Africa

Being energy-autonomous has been suggested as a means of having sustainable energy in South Africa, where about 98% of electricity is derived from coal. Research has shown that biogas produced from animal wastes using a biodigester can be used as a source of renewable energy with the added benefits of a by-product called digestate, which can replace inorganic fertiliser. This study analyses the factors that influence smallholder farmers’ willingness to adopt a biodigester technology. It uses a structured questionnaire to acquire data from 80 respondents in Ngaka Modiri Molema District in North West Province, South Africa. The respondents were 30 livestock farmers and 29 farmers practising mixed farming. Five extension officers were also interviewed to establish their level of knowledge about the technology. Descriptive statistics and Fisher’s exact test were used to analyse the data. Factors such as gender, years of experience and family size were significant to willingness to adopt a biodigester. Farmers who were male and those with more years of experience were open to the idea, while those with larger families were less open to it, due to financial constraint. Overall, respondents practising mixed farming were more willing to adopt a biodigester than livestock farmers.

Effects of sustainable agricultural practices on farm income and food security in northern Ghana

The adoption of sustainable agricultural practices (SAPs) has been recommended by many experts and international institutions to address food security and climate change problems. Global support for the Sustainable Development Goals has focused attention on efforts to up-scale the adoption of SAPs in developing countries where growth in populations and incomes compromises the resilience of natural resources. This study investigates the factors affecting smallholder farmers’ decisions to adopt SAPs (improved seed, fertilizer, and soil and water conservation) and the impacts of the adoption on farm income and food security, using data collected from Ghana. Food security is captured by the reduced coping strategy index and household dietary diversity. The multinomial endogenous switching regression model is utilized to address selection bias issues. Results show that farmers’ decisions to adopt SAPs are influenced by the social demographics of the households, plot-level characteristics, extension services and locations. Adopting all three SAPs has larger positive impacts on farm income and food security than adopting single or two SAPs. Our findings advocate for policies that enhance the quality of extension service and strengthen farmer-based organizations for the wider dissemination of adequate SAP information. Farmers should be encouraged to adopt SAPs as a comprehensive package for increasing farm income and ensuring food security.

Factors affecting the smallholder farmers' participation in the emerging modern supply chain in developing countries

PurposeDespite the availability of new buyers and the possibility to receive higher prices, still large numbers of smallholder farmers do not participate in the modern supply chains. This study aims to understand the factors that affect smallholder farmers' participation in a newly emerging modern supply chain context.Design/methodology/approachData were collected from 6 focus groups of farmers (67 farmers in total) and 14 interviews with market actors and key informants such as government officials and donor organisations.FindingsInfluential factors of farmers' participation in the modern chain include buyer attributes and transaction conditions. High prices and prompt payment are the key motivators, with the main inhibitors being personal relationships with buyers and strict market requirements related to quality and quantity supplied.Practical implicationsIn order to encourage smallholder farmer participation in modern chains, an expansion of the marketing of high-quality vegetables by implementing quality control mechanisms and the encouragement to adopt safe marketing practices is needed. These results are particularly relevant for practitioners and policymakers.Originality/valueMost research to date concentrates on farmers' socioeconomic characteristics and are based in countries with advanced modern chains, and rarely focus on farmer participation in countries where modern chains are relatively new. This study addresses this gap by analysing farmer preferences to engage in the context of a country experiencing the emergence of trade through modern vegetable supply chain system.

TheImpacts of Apple-based Agroforestry Practices on the Livelihoods of Smallholder Farmers in Southern Ethiopia

The introduction and expansion of apple-based agroforestry practices contribute to eco-environmental sustainability and positively affect smallholder farmers' socioeconomic well-being. This paper investigates apple production patterns, its livelihood implications, and challenges in Southern Ethiopia, focusing on Chencha Woreda. Mixed research approaches were used to acquire and analyse data. Purposive and systematic random sampling techniques were applied to select sample kebeles and 309 farm-households. Questionnaires, interviews, FGDs, field observations, and document reviews were employed to collect data. Data were analysed quantitatively using SPSS and qualitatively. The study revealed that apple was introduced to Chencha by missionaries, nevertheless, with notable time lag for its intensive production. Field data confirmed spatial variation in apple production, areas relatively close to Chencha town produces more apples than farther kebeles. The land covered by apples at woreda and household levels is negligible compared to the potential. Educational status, age, landholding size, distance, and development agents’ support significantly influenced apple farm size in the study area. Regardless of the multifaceted challenges (land fragmentation, shortage of inputs, knowledge gaps in harvesting, increasing illegal marketing, and prevalence of thieves), apple production positively contributed to farmers' livelihoods. The livelihood assets ownership status of apple-producer farmers was highly improved compared to the previous conditions. Designing progressive capacity-building programs, adequately supplying agricultural inputs/tools, and introducing a strong apple production policy will offset the challenges and enhance farmers' productivity.

Reducing Climate Risks by Improving Food Production and Value Chains: A Case of Sandy Soils in Semi-arid Kenya

Due to climate change and variability, extreme weather events are becoming more frequent worldwide, causing significant reductions in agricultural production and food security. The livelihoods of smallholder farmers, especially those eking out a living by farming on sandy soils, are particularly affected. We examined this issue using the case of Makueni County, a semi-arid area with sandy soils in south-eastern Kenya. Using survey data from 202 households, we examined extreme weather events affecting smallholder farmers and current management strategies used to mitigate the consequences. We then performed field experiments to assess potential gains of implementing sub-surface water retention technology (SWRT) in the region. Finally, we held group discussions with stakeholders in food value chains (FVC) to identify ways of managing climate risks to smallholder farmers. Analysis of the survey data showed that 199 of 202 farmers surveyed had experienced an extreme event associated with climate change and variability during the previous five years. Of these 199 farmers, 161 reported having changed their farming practices to adapt, especially to drought (70%) and increased temperature (22%). Common adaptation practices included early planting, reducing the area under cultivation, and water harvesting. In the field experiments, using SWRT resulted in a 50, 100, 150, and 170% increase in maize grain yield, cob numbers, cob weight, and maize stover biomass, respectively, compared with the control (without SWRT). Stakeholder group discussions along the FVC demonstrated a need for synergy among actors to mitigate climate risks caused by extreme weather events. These findings suggest that diversification of management strategies at farm level, combined with external inputs (new technologies, improved seeds, etc.) and services (credit access, learning from peers and professionals), will be instrumental in reducing future climate risks to smallholder farmers. Improving access to viable markets and fostering mutually beneficial linkages with post-harvest processors would add value to farm produce, thus further increasing income and the capacity of smallholder farmers to manage climate risks.

Do changes in maize prices and input prices affect smallholder farmers’ soil fertility management decisions? panel survey evidence from Kenya

ABSTRACT Soil fertility management (SFM) practices such as maize-legume intercropping and organic fertiliser, particularly when used jointly with inorganic fertiliser, have the potential to increase yields and yield response to inorganic fertiliser, improve soil health, and contribute to sustainable intensification (SI). However, relatively little is known about the drivers of adoption of these practices, especially for joint use. Moreover, it has been suggested that African farmers will respond to an increase in the maize price they expect to receive at the next harvest by increasing investment in their soils or altering use of SFM practices in response to input price changes. Yet previous studies largely ignore the role of prices. Using nationwide household panel survey data from Kenya, we estimate the effects of changes in crop and input prices on household use of individual SFM practices and combinations thereof. We find that Kenyan smallholders’ SFM adoption decisions are largely insensitive to changes in expected maize prices. However, when inorganic fertiliser prices rise, farmers are more likely to use organic fertiliser and use less inorganic fertiliser per acre. These results suggest that price policies alone are unlikely to be effective ways to promote SI of maize production in Kenya.

Understanding the Impact of COVID-19 on Agriculture and Food Supply Chains: System Dynamics Modeling for the Resilience of Smallholder Farmers

COVID-19 has caused severe agriculture and food supply chain disruptions, significantly affecting smallholder farmers who supply most of the world’s food, specifically their changes in vulnerability, resilience, and food loss and waste. Therefore, the objective of this study was to understand the complex causal and feedback relationships for this system by developing a dynamic hypothesis and causal loop diagrams utilizing the System Dynamics methodology. Results provide a roadmap for dialogue and a framework for case-specific model development and help to guide policy decisions for smallholder farmers’ survival during health crises.

Determinants of smallholder farmers’ participation in microfinance markets in Huye district, southern province, Rwanda

Microfinance markets play a significant role in enhancing socio-economic development of developing countries. In Rwanda, access to microfinance in financing agriculture is very important for future development. Despite this development, smallholder farmers still have limited access to institutional financial services. This study assessed factors that affect smallholder farmers’ participation in microfinance markets in three sectors of Maraba, Mukura and Ngoma in Huye district in Southern province of Rwanda. Primary data were collected using questionnaires and personal interviews. A total of 300 respondents were selected using a simple random sampling technique from participants and non-participants in microfinance markets. Data collected were analyzed through descriptive statistics and Probit regression model. Results from descriptive statistics revealed that major sources of income were farming and business activities. Findings revealed also that each household had an average of about five members with standard deviation of 1.901 and mean value of household land size of 1.87 ha with standards deviation of 0.758. Findings from Probit analysis revealed that household size, education, total annual income, cooperative membership, and household savings had a positive and significant effect on smallholder farmers’ participation in microfinance markets. Distance from microfinance institutions negatively influenced participation in microfinance markets. Households that were located far from to the microfinance institutions were less likely to participate in microfinance markets compared to those nearer to the institutions. This study recommends microfinance institutions in Rwanda to expand their financial systems to enable smallholder farmers access affordable agricultural finance. Further, there is need for microfinance institutions to create more awareness programs to help smallholder farmers get key information related to microfinance services. This is expected to influence smallholder farmers’ willingness to apply for microcredits for agricultural development. This will in the long-run help the smallholder farmers to adopt new practices and technologies thus increasing their agricultural production.

Determinants of Formal Credit Repayment Performance by Smallholder Farmers in Dale Sedi Woreda

Ethiopian economy is mainly depends on agriculture which provides employment for 85% of the labor force and accounts for a little over 50 per cent of the GDP regardless of its low production potential. To bolster the sector, improvement of agricultural technologies with sufficient loan provision is advisable. However, smallholders are reluctant to repay again. This study therefore attempted to investigate the factors that affect smallholder farmers’ formal credit repayment performance in Dale Sadie woreda. To do so, a microeconomic based analysis with multistage sampling technique (inclusion of both purposive and systematic random sampling) was used to determine the relevant sample size of the study. To analyze the data, both descriptive and inferential (Tobit regression) methods were utilized. The result of the study revealed that respondents’ age, educational level, smallholder farmers of being protestant, orthodox, and Muslim religious followers, and loan repayment ratio were significantly and positively affect repayment performance, Moreover, farm households’ family size and marital status of being widowed were statistically significant and has a negative impact on repayment performance. Therefore, responsible bodies should be involved to increase the repayment performance of small holder farmers. Keywords: repayment performance, defaulters, Dale Sadie woreda, kebele DOI: 10.7176/JESD/12-17-01 Publication date: September 30 th 2021