Aerial Weapons Research Articles

Air Warfare over Ukraine and International Humanitarian Law

The Russian aggression against Ukraine involves extensive use of air power, proving that without the sufficient level of air control, the combat operations on the ground face significant operational challenges. The use of air power raises questions regarding the legality of the aerial actions conducted over Ukraine. This conflict in the air domain is characterised by separate campaigns. The first one was a battle over the air superiority of Ukraine, which was relatively short in time (February–April 2022), albeit intense, and lost by the Russian Air Force due to the inability to destroy Ukrainian air defence assets and Ukrainian military aviation. The second one, still in progress at the moment this article is being written, looks to become an unresolved contest of attrition, as both belligerents vastly increased their air disruption capabilities. In particular, during the last period of the first phase, it is believed that many of the Russian air strikes were, in fact, indiscriminate or deliberately directed against civilian objectives. The aim of the article is to analyse the overall conduct of the air war over Ukraine and pinpoint the legal challenges in assessing the legality of such air operations. In the context of available information, the paper will seek to understand the legal framework concerning the destruction of the An-225 at the Hostomel airport during the first phase of hostilities, the use of certain aerial weapons, and the selection of targets.

The First Sub-machine Gun: The Officine di Villar Perosa Machine Gun of 1915 (Part II)

This article aims to present a detailed and more nuanced examination of the development, production, and military application of the Pistola Mitragliatrice OVP (‘OVP Machine Pistol’), a unique and unusual twin-barrelled, pistol-calibre machine gun introduced in Italy during the First World War. The design process which led to the OVP machine gun is first described, followed by an assessment of its rapid adoption by the Italian Army and subsequent deployment as both an infantry support weapon and an aerial weapon fitted to military aircraft. Its efficacy in combat and impact on infantry tactics of the period are reviewed, in addition to its influence on the design of similar Austro-Hungarian small arms, and finally, its evolution into both a single-barrelled automatic carbine and a rifle-calibre light machine gun are described, along with its post-war legacy.

The First Sub-machine Gun: The Officine di Villar Perosa Machine Gun of 1915 (Part I)

This article aims to present a detailed and more nuanced examination of the development, production, and military application of the Pistola Mitragliatrice OVP (‘OVP Machine Pistol’), a unique and unusual twin-barrelled, pistol-calibre machine gun introduced in Italy during the First World War. The design process which led to the OVP machine gun is first described, followed by an assessment of its rapid adoption by the Italian Army and subsequent deployment as both an infantry support weapon and an aerial weapon fitted to military aircraft. Its efficacy in combat and impact on infantry tactics of the period are reviewed, in addition to its influence on the design of similar Austro-Hungarian small arms, and finally, its evolution into both a single-barrelled automatic carbine and a rifle-calibre light machine gun are described, along with its post-war legacy.

Optimization of the Risk Functional to Control the Composition and Structure of a Heterogenous Grouping of Detection Sensors in Three-Dimensional Space

The steady growth in the scale and dynamics of the use of aerial weapons in the course of various conflicts necessitates the formulation and solution of the problems of building realistic systems to detect them. It should be noted that the priorities in the development of detection sensors is changing from solving problems to improve their characteristics to optimization and adaptability in controlling them. As an object, a heterogeneous grouping of sensors, which solves the problem of detecting a moving airborne object, is considered. The subject is the methodology for constructing control models for heterogeneous detection sensors. Based on the analysis of the antagonistic interaction of a heterogeneous grouping and airborne objects, as well as the processes of their functioning, a geometric approach to solve the problem of detecting a moving object (MO) is proposed, which uses an adapted and improved risk functional as one of the possible indicators for the further synthesis of the control algorithms. The practical effectiveness of the application of this functionality is substantiated and compared with other performance indicators through simulation modeling.

The Paradox of Precision and the Weapons Review Regime

As aerial weapons become more accurate and precise, they paradoxically expose civilians to greater harm. They make the use of military force feasible where previously it had not been. While these weapons are subject to legal review to certify that they are capable of being deployed in a discriminate manner, weapons review practice in the US and UK lends cursory approval to weapons that are as likely to harm civilians as enemy combatants. This article argues that a robust contextualized review of weapon’s effects on civilians and combatants is both legally required and in states’ strategic security interests.

Aerial Weapon Safety under the Provisions of Law

The article presents several of many safety aspects regarding aerial weapons. An attempt was made to present problems related to environmental safety, technical services, the transport of hazardous materials in the light of the applicable provisions of Polish and international laws.

The Paradox of Precision and the Weapons Review Regime

As aerial weapons become more accurate and precise, they paradoxically expose civilians to greater harm. They make the use of military force feasible where previously it had not been. While these weapons are subject to legal review to certify that they are capable of being deployed in a discriminate manner, weapons review practice in the US and UK lends cursory approval to weapons that are as likely to harm civilians as enemy combatants. This article argues that a robust contextualized review of weapon’s effects on civilians and combatants is both legally required and in states’ strategic security interests.

운영유지 비용을 고려한 항공무기체계 레이다의 최적정비주기 설정 방안

운영유지 비용을 고려한 항공무기체계 레이다의 최적정비주기 설정 방안

Electrodynamic method in bistatic radar - real and artificial targets

The research shows that the real aerial weapon, i.e. hypersonic missile warhead and the target simulator of the MALD type, in bistatic radar result in significantly different topological scattering patterns when taking into account the radiation polarization. Radiation with p -polarization allows for a more expressive topological scattering pattern than in the case of s -polarization, and the θ angle change of the place gives a brighter relief pattern with alternating maxima and deep minima, which leads to an assumption about a high resolving power when identifying the objects by means of the gradient method. A special difference between the two objects, i.e. the target simulator and the missile warhead, can be observed in the case of s -polarization: the patterns differ significantly in topology, the missile maxima regions occupy a larger area, while the minima are much deeper

The evolution of targeted killing practices: Autonomous weapons, future conflict, and the international order

ABSTRACTThis article examines the potential use of autonomous aerial weapons for targeted killing purposes and, in doing so, looks beyond the now-familiar “global war on terror.” We argue that the combination of novel capabilities with the pre-existing military-theoretical frameworks of advanced Western states, within which autonomous weapons will be embedded, may be conducive to an expansion of targeted killings to scenarios other than military counter-terrorism. The confluence of autonomous weapons and targeted killing practices may therefore lead to a further weakening of long-standing norms regulating the use of force, including in interstate scenarios. We also find that international regulation is unlikely to forestall this outcome, and that political-military insistence on centralized operational control may mitigate—but not negate—the disruptive potential of these developments. As a result, the possible consequences for the international order of an evolution of targeted killing practices along these lines should not be underestimated.

A means-methods paradox and the legality of drone strikes in armed conflict

This article examines the legality of drone strikes. It limits the analysis to conduct within a traditionally defined armed conflict, in order to focus more clearly on the question of whether features inherent to the drone as a weapons system might make it conducive to violations of international law. The article reviews the applicable legal principles from international humanitarian law and international human rights law, and examines the record of civilian deaths caused by drone strikes in Afghanistan. While transparency and accountability are a problem, the study suggests that the drone strike operations may be characterised by more direct systemic violations of international law. In examining such potential violations the article considers the features inherent to the drone as a ‘means' of warfare, and the features of the policy and practices that underlie the ‘methods' of warfare related to drone strikes, with the aim of determining which is more responsible for any violations. The features of the armed drone as a weapons systems appear to make it more conducive to compliance with international humanitarian law than competing aerial weapons systems. Conversely, aspects of the policy governing drone operations, such as the criteria used for ‘signature strikes', are more likely to contribute to violations of international law. However, examining the issue from the perspective of a particular strike, and viewed through the lens of cognitive consistency theory on misperception, the article suggests that the picture may be more complex. Paradoxically, the very features that are most likely to make the drone compliant with international humanitarian law – its ability to linger undetected for protracted periods over potential targets, feeding intelligence back to an operations team that can make targeting decisions in a relatively stress-free environment – may facilitate targeting errors caused by misperception and misinterpretation of the target data. In short, both the ‘means' and ‘methods' of drone strikes may combine to facilitate violations of international humanitarian law.

Forgotten Virtues

Forgotten Virtues

Violent Deaths of Iraqi Civilians, 2003–2008: Analysis by Perpetrator, Weapon, Time, and Location

Armed violence is a major public health and humanitarian problem in Iraq. In this descriptive statistical analysis we aimed to describe for the first time Iraqi civilian deaths caused by perpetrators of armed violence during the first 5 years of the Iraq war: over time; by weapon used; by region (governorate); and by victim demographics. We analyzed the Iraq Body Count database of 92,614 Iraqi civilian direct deaths from armed violence occurring from March 20, 2003 through March 19, 2008, of which Unknown perpetrators caused 74% of deaths (n = 68,396), Coalition forces 12% (n = 11,516), and Anti-Coalition forces 11% (n = 9,954). We analyzed the subset of 60,481 civilian deaths from 14,196 short-duration events of lethal violence to link individual civilian deaths to events involving perpetrators and their methods. One-third of civilian violent death was from extrajudicial executions by Unknown perpetrators; quadratic regression shows these deaths progressively and disproportionately increased as deaths from other forms of violence increased across Iraq's governorates. The highest average number of civilians killed per event in which a civilian died were in Unknown perpetrator suicide bombings targeting civilians (19 per lethal event) and Coalition aerial bombings (17 per lethal event). In temporal analysis, numbers of civilian deaths from Coalition air attacks, and woman and child deaths from Coalition forces, peaked during the invasion. We applied a Woman and Child "Dirty War Index" (DWI), measuring the proportion of women and children among civilian deaths of known demographic status, to the 22,066 civilian victims identified as men, women, or children to indicate relatively indiscriminate perpetrator effects. DWI findings suggest the most indiscriminate effects on women and children were from Unknown perpetrators using mortar fire (DWI = 79) and nonsuicide vehicle bombs (DWI = 54) and from Coalition air attacks (DWI = 69). Coalition forces had higher Woman and Child DWIs than Anti-Coalition forces, with no evidence of decrease over 2003-2008, for all weapons combined and for small arms gunfire, specifically. Most Iraqi civilian violent deaths during 2003-2008 of the Iraq war were inflicted by Unknown perpetrators, primarily through extrajudicial executions that disproportionately increased in regions with greater numbers of violent deaths. Unknown perpetrators using suicide bombs, vehicle bombs, and mortars had highly lethal and indiscriminate effects on the Iraqi civilians they targeted. Deaths caused by Coalition forces of Iraqi civilians, women, and children peaked during the invasion period, with relatively indiscriminate effects from aerial weapons. Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary.

Aerosol deposition and origin in French mountains estimated with soil inventories of 210Pb and artificial radionuclides

Radionuclide inventories were measured in soils from different French mountainous areas: Chaîne des Puys (Massif Central), Eastern Corsica, Jura, Montagne Noire, Savoie, Vosges and Rhine Valley. 210Pb soil inventories were used to estimate long-term (>75 yr) deposition of submicron aerosols. Whereas 210Pb total deposition is explained partly by wet deposition, as demonstrated by increase of 210Pb inventory with annual rainfall; a part of 210Pb in the soils of higher altitude is caused by orographic depositions. Using measurements of radionuclides coming from nuclear aerial weapon tests ( 137Cs and Pu isotopes), we were able to estimate the origin of aerosols deposited in high-altitude sites and to confirm the importance of occult deposition and feeder–seeder mechanism. Using a simple mass balance model, we estimate that occult deposition and feeder–seeder mechanisms account to more than 50% of total deposition of 210Pb and associated submicron aerosols in French altitude sites.

Structure Ascendant

Though it clearly bears the marks of the early 1950s, Ideas and Weapons remains an important and useful classic in the literature on military innovation. I.B. Holley's analysis of the role of institutional structure in shaping the adoption of the aerial weapon during World War I continues to frame current understanding of the complex interaction between military doctrine, military institutions, and technological change. This Revisit examines the context and content of Holley's analysis, its scholarly reception, and its impact on current literature in the history military technology.

The Long Search for a Surgical Strike: Precision Munitions and the Revolution in Military Affairs

Abstract : This research paper explores the relationship between the advancement in conventional weapons guidance technology and the in military affairs (RMA) said to be afoot. It also explores whether the improvement in conventional air weapons accuracy since World War II is the foundation, the main pillar, one of the principal supports, or is irrelevant to the RMA. Clearly, the air theorists of the 1920s were fully persuaded that indeed a revolution was afoot. Equally clear, the visions of Guilio Douhet, William Billy Mitchell, and the Air Corps Tactical School (ACTS) were no more than partially fulfilled in World War II. This research paper explores the degree to which the shortcomings of aerial weapons were responsible for the denial of their visions and the degree to which those inadequacies were overcome in the conflicts that followed. It closes with an estimate as to whether those dreams of a revolution are about to be fulfilled. Bernard Brodie concluded that World War II had been as complete a test of the theories as Douhet could have desired. Yet, the argument goes on as to the effectiveness of the bombing campaigns of that conflict. Consequently, none of the subsequent air wars has approached the completeness of the tests over Japan and Germany in the 1940s. Therefore, the concluding estimate cannot be much more than a guess.

Rationality, Agency, Contingency: Recent Trends in the History of Technology

When the Society for the History of Technology (SHOT) launched itself in the late 1950s, many U.S. historians found a compelling postwar framework for organizing research around an American consensus. SHOT’s founding generation participated in the scholarly spirit of the time although with its own particular emphases. Cold War ideology and a morally idealistic engineering creed defined technology, if well funded and unfettered by local political passions, as leading in a clean line toward democratic societies. Apart from this technologically specified version of American hegemonic progress, the received stereotype for technological history in the 1950s was no interpretation at all. Half a millennium of curiosity about artifacts had crystallized in a balkanized landscape, islands of passionate attention to minute changes over time in one’s artifact of choice—clocks, trains, automobiles, machine tools, weapons. An antiquarian paradigm and compelling Cold War urgency marked SHOT’s beginnings as a (barely) visible discipline in 1958. 1 Still, a handful of landmark books had begun to suggest new directions. Lewis Mumford and Siegfried S. Giedion, in particular, achieved an international reputation for major synthetic interpretations of western technological style. Louis Hunter’s Steamboats on the Western Rivers and I. B. Holley’s Ideas and Weapons: Exploitation of the Aerial Weapon by the United States During World War One were less broadly known but considered breakthrough works within SHOT, comprehensive histories that situated technologies in the rich economic and political context of their times. 2 The founders understood their journal title as a move from internalism toward the still inchoate approach seen in Mumford, Giedion, Holley, and Hunter. The new journal would emphasize context: Technology and Culture. Two principles more or less defined their emerging methodology. First, every technology has a context of origin. Historical actors, specific in motive, worldview, and resources, shape technologies, as does the ambient social order. Second, technological actors think distinctively; from the beginning, historians of technology almost unanimously rejected the received popular notion of technology as “applied science.” Engineers use science as one

Winged Defense: Airwar, The Law, and Morality

For centuries man has attempted to soften war's effects through moral and legal strictures. Nonetheless, when a nation's survival is at stake, laws and morals are often forgotten. That happened in World War II, and strategic bombing was singled out as being particularly horrible. Unfortunately and for various reasons, attempts to legislate war since then have met with little success. This article argues that the West has not employed airpower either illegally or immorally, and that airwar is not more inhumane or indiscriminate than other forms of war. In fact, as aerial weapons have become increasingly precise, they have acted to dramatically decrease civilian casualties and collateral damage. Rather than attempting to restrict air weapons, which has been the thrust of a number of legal efforts, jurists should instead concentrate on limiting those weapons and means of warfare that are considerably more deadly and destructive.

Ideas and Weapons; Exploitation of the aerial weapon by the United States during World War I; a study in the Relationship of Technological advance, Military Doctrine, and the Development of Weapons.

Ideas and Weapons; Exploitation of the aerial weapon by the United States during World War I; a study in the Relationship of Technological advance, Military Doctrine, and the Development of Weapons.

Ideas and Weapons: Exploitation of the Aerial Weapon by the United States during World War I; A Study in the Relationship of Technological Advance, Military Doctrine, and the Development of Weapons. By I. B. HolleyJr, (Yale Historical Publications, Miscellany, Volume LVII.) New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953. Pp. xii, 222. $3.75.

Ideas and Weapons: Exploitation of the Aerial Weapon by the United States during World War I; A Study in the Relationship of Technological Advance, Military Doctrine, and the Development of Weapons. By I. B. HolleyJr, (Yale Historical Publications, Miscellany, Volume LVII.) New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953. Pp. xii, 222. $3.75.