Adverse Effects Of Salt Research Articles

Foliar application of either melatonin or sodium nitpoprusside regulates the antioxidant status, and the morpho-physiological attributes and essential oil production in sage (Salvia officinalis L.) under salinity stress

Soil salinity is one of the most severe abiotic stress factors affecting crop growth and yield. Among the molecules used to mitigate the adverse effects of salt, melatonin (MT) and the nitric oxide donor sodium nitroprusside (SNP) played a crucial role in mediating plant responses to salt stress. However, the molecules are worthy of further consideration and investigation with regard to the secondary metabolism of plants suffering from salt stress. Herein, the potential role of MT and SNP in alleviating/buffering the negative effects of salt stress on sage (Salvia officinalis L.) seedlings was investigated. In this context, MT (0, 50 µM, and 100 µM) and SNP (0, 50 µM, and 100 µM) were applied individually. The interactive effects of each molecule with salt stress (50 and 100 mM NaCl) were assessed using a range of morpho-physiological, biochemical and analytical parameters of sage. The results of the study showed that high salinity (100 mM NaCl) critically reduced growth and photosynthetic traits and increased oxidative stress damage parameters. On the other hand, high concentrations (100 µM) of MT or SNP treatments significantly improved growth, enhanced photosynthetic traits and mitigated oxidative stress damage parameters. For instance, individual treatments of both MT and SNP enhanced tolerance of sage against salinity stress by increasing relative water content, proline, total carbohydrates, total phenolics and flavonoid content, and the antioxidant enzymes and DPPH scavenging activities. Essential oil yield and individual essential oil compounds were also increased by MT and SNP. Overall, these molecules can be considered as potential protective agents against salinity stress in sage seedlings.

CONTROL OF K+HOMEOSTASIS: AN ESSENTIAL STRESS TOLERANCE MECHANISM IN PLANTS

Soil salinity is one of the most critical environmental stressors that reduces crop yields worldwide and affects wild plants distribution in nature. Climate change is increasing the salinity of irrigated cropland and natural saline habitats of high ecological value, highlighting the interest in elucidating salt stress tolerance mechanisms in crops and wild plants. One of the well-known adverse effects of salt is the interference of toxic Na+ ions with K+ uptake and homeostasis, as both cations compete for the same binding sites and transport proteins. Therefore, an increase in substrate salinity is usually accompanied by a reduction of K+ concentrations in the plant organs, as it has been observed in many species, both salt sensitive and tolerant. However, in other plants, K+ contents are maintained or even increase with increasing Na+ concentrations; for example, in some species, K+transport to the leaves is activated at high external salinity to counteract the toxic Na+ effects. This review will present several examples of these mechanisms and their relevance for stress tolerance, based primarily on our group's work during the last 20 years.

Nitrogen and Phosphorus Counteracted the Adverse Effects of Salt on Sorghum by Improving ROS Scavenging and Osmotic Regulation

Fertilizer management is one of the easiest and most practical ways of combating salt stress. This study was done to evaluate the alleviative effects of nitrogen and phosphorus on the growth and salt tolerance of salt-affected sorghum. A controlled study organized in a randomized block design with three replications was conducted, testing three nitrogen rates (N0: 0 kg ha−1, N1: 180 kg ha−1, N2: 360 N kg ha−1) and phosphorus rates (P0: 0 P2O5 kg ha−1, P1: 60 P2O5 kg ha−1, P2: 120 P2O5 kg ha−1). Nitrogen and phosphorus application had positive effects on morphological indexes (plant height, stem diameter), some physiological and biochemical attributes (the content of proline and soluble protein, and the activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, peroxidase, and ascorbate peroxidase), and aerial biomass (fresh and dry weight) of sorghum grown in saline soils. Reactive oxygen species accumulation and cell membrane damage were decreased with the application of nitrogen and phosphorus. Compared with sole fertilizer, the combined application of nitrogen and phosphorus showed better performance in alleviating salt damage on sorghum. Despite the fact that the maximum of most of the measured parameters and the minimum of reactive oxygen species accumulation and cell membrane damage were generally obtained at N1P1 and N2P2 treatment, N1P1 was recommended to be the suitable treatment considering economic benefits and environmental protection.

Exogenous zinc mitigates salinity stress by stimulating proline metabolism in proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.).

Salinity is one of the most concerning ecological restrictions influencing plant growth, which poses a devastating threat to global agriculture. Surplus quantities of ROS generated under stress conditions have negative effects on plants' growth and survival by damaging cellular components, including nucleic acids, lipids, proteins and carbohydrates. However, low levels of ROS are also necessary because of their role as signalling molecules in various development-related pathways. Plants possess sophisticated antioxidant systems for scavenging as well as regulating ROS levels to protect cells from damage. Proline is one such crucial non-enzymatic osmolyte of antioxidant machinery that functions in the reduction of stress. There has been extensive research on improving the tolerance, effectiveness, and protection of plants against stress, and to date, various substances have been used to mitigate the adverse effects of salt. In the present study Zinc (Zn) was applied to elucidate its effect on proline metabolism and stress-responsive mechanisms in proso millet. The results of our study indicate the negative impact on growth and development with increasing treatments of NaCl. However, the low doses of exogenous Zn proved beneficial in mitigating the effects of NaCl by improving morphological and biochemical features. In salt-treated plants, the low doses of Zn (1 mg/L, 2 mg/L) rescued the negative impact of salt (150mM) as evidenced by increase in shoot length (SL) by 7.26% and 25.5%, root length (RL) by 21.84% and 39.07% and membrane stability index (MSI) by 132.57% and 151.58% respectively.The proline content improved at all concentrations with maximum increase of 66.65% at 2 mg/L Zn. Similarly, the low doses of Zn also rescued the salt induced stress at 200mM NaCl. The enzymes related to proline biosynthesis were also improved at lower doses of Zn. In salt treated plants (150mM), Zn (1 mg/L, 2 mg/L) increased the activity of P5CS by 19.344% and 21%. The P5CR and OAT activities were also improved with maximum increase of 21.66% and 21.84% at 2 mg/L Zn respectively. Similarly, the low doses of Zn also increased the activities of P5CS, P5CR and OAT at 200mM NaCl. Whereas P5CDH enzyme activity showed a decrease of 82.5% at 2mg/L Zn+150mM NaCl and 56.7% at 2mg/L Zn+200 mM NaCl. These results strongly imply the modulatory role of Zn in maintaining of proline pool during NaCl stress.

Silica modified biochar mitigates the adverse effects of salt and drought stress and improves safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) growth

Silica modified biochar mitigates the adverse effects of salt and drought stress and improves safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) growth

A synthetic cytokinin primes photosynthetic and growth response in grapevine under ion-independent salinity stress

ABSTRACT Aiding optimal plant–environment interaction would favor plant resilience against environmental constrains including salt stress. We test the hypothesis that 6-Benzylaminopurine (BAP) primes grapevine’s salt tolerance in vines (Vitis vinifera) received salt water (NaCl 100 mM) through the modulation of gene expression of BAP (AHK4, AHP1) and salt-stress (CAT, APX) inducible genes and morpho-physiological traits. A subgroup of vines had previously (48 h) been primed with BAP (80 mg/L) before salt stress. The gene expressions were 30% (CAT) and 56% (APX) lower in primed salt-stressed vines than that in un-primed. Salt treatment did not increase leaf Na+ but it lowered stomatal conductance (g s), photosynthesis (A), stem water potential (less negative) and photosystem-II efficiency (F v/F m). Chlorophyll-a concentrations were 30% higher in BAP-primed compared to un-primed. Adverse effects of salt were significantly reduced, maintaining high A/g s, F v/F m and growth. After the relief of the stress, the BAP primed vines had a fast recovery.

Fennel outperforms ajwain and anise in saline environment: physiological response mechanisms in germinating seeds and mature plants

The potential of different medicinal species as alternative crops for saline conditions needs to be explored. Comparative physiological responses of germinating seeds and mature plants of three genotypes of anise (Pimpinella anisum L.), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.), and ajwain (Trachyspermum ammi L.) to salt were studied in a 2-year field experiment using 0 and 100 mcM, and a laboratory experiment using 0, 25, 50, 75, 100, and 125 mM NaCl. Catalase and ascorbate peroxidase activities increased in the salt-stricken plants of all genotypes, but only peroxidase activity of the salt-treated plants of anise genotypes and two of the fennel genotypes increased under field conditions. Chlorophyll and K+ concentrations of all genotypes decreased, but proline and Na+ concentrations and Na+/K+ increased under saline conditions. Dry mass, grain yield, and essential oil yield decreased in the salt-exposed plants across all genotypes and species. Germination, root, and shoot length were suppressed upon exposure to saline water. Despite the increasing trend of the proline and polyphenol concentrations and catalase and peroxidases activities, ascorbate peroxidase activity of germinating seeds decreased with an increase in NaCl concentration. Smaller adverse effects of salt on fennel germination attributes, grain and essential oil yields were evident. Moreover, greater activities of antioxidative enzymes and maintained Na+ and Na+/K+ of salt-stricken fennel plants were observed. These findings indicate that germinating seeds and mature plants of fennel have a greater ability to withstand salinity than the other examined species.

Impacts of osmopriming on mitigation of the negative effects of salinity and water stress in seed germination of the aromatic plant Lavandula stoechas L.

Butterfly lavander (Lavandula stoechas L.) seed germination is sensitive to salinity and water stress. Seed priming effectively mitigates the adverse effects of salt and water stresses on seed emergence. Although its extensive uses as an ornamental plant, no studies have assessed the effects of seed priming on Butterfly lavander germination under salinity and moisture stress. Here, we investigate whether KCl-osmopriming could improve germination fitness of L. stoechas under salt and watre stresses. Seeds of this species were osmoprimed with different levels of KCl (1 %, 2 %, and 4 %) and germinated in different concentrations of NaCl (0, 50, 100, 150 mM) and water deficit (0, −0.25, −0.5, −0.75, and −1.0 MPa PEG). Non-treated seeds (control) had little dormancy; around 90 % of the seeds were germinated. The germination was significantly decreased with the increase in salinity and water deficit stress. However, seed osmopriming markedly increased the germination percentage and rate in higher salinity and lower water potential levels.The impact of osmopriming was more obvious under the high-stress condition (i.e., higher salinity and lower water potential) than at the less-stress conditions. In addition, hydrotime model analysis indicated that seeds primed with 4 % KCl showed increasing germination rate (decreased θH) and uniformity (decreased σψb) under water deficiency. These results indicate that the application of KCl-osmopriming could alleviate the harmful effects of soil salinity and water stress on seed germination, suggesting that these treatments would enhance L. stoechas establishment in arid and semi-arid bioclimates.

Protective Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acid on Salt Induced Microscopic Changes in Femur of Female Sprague Dawley Rats

Osteoporosis is a major risk factor for fracture affects an enormous number of people of both genders worldwide. Objectives: To evaluate the shielding effect of omega-3 fatty acids on high salt induced histological findings in femur of rats. Study Design: Randomized Control Trial. Methodology: Female rats (n=30) were divided into three groups. Group A recieved high salt diet (8%NaCl) while group B recieved omega-3-treated salt loaded diet receiving 260 mg/kg body weight with 8% NaCl solution (8 weeks), control group received standard diet. Tissue from mid shaft and proximal end of femur was obtained to study the osteoblast number, mid cortical bone thickness and trabecular bone architecture. Statistical analysis: SPSS software, v 21 analyzed data. Results: Protective effects were seen in Omega-3 fatty acid supplemented experimental group B with increase in osteoblast number, mid cortical bone thickness and increase in microstructure of trabeculae. Conclusion: We concluded that dietary nutrient like omega-3 fatty acid is a helpful tool in eliminating adverse effects of salt on bones by enhancing osteoblastic activity thus reducing its remodeling. Keywords: Bone, Osteoblast, Omega-3 fatty acid, Salt and Trabeculae.

Manipulation of light spectrum can improve the performance of photosynthetic apparatus of strawberry plants growing under salt and alkalinity stress.

Strawberry is one of the plants sensitive to salt and alkalinity stress. Light quality affects plant growth and metabolic activities. However, there is no clear answer in the literature on how light can improve the performance of the photosynthetic apparatus of this species under salt and alkalinity stress. The aim of this work was to investigate the effects of different spectra of supplemental light on strawberry (cv. Camarosa) under salt and alkalinity stress conditions. Light spectra of blue (with peak 460 nm), red (with peak 660 nm), blue/red (1:3), white/yellow (1:1) (400–700 nm) and ambient light were used as control. There were three stress treatments: control (no stress), alkalinity (40 mM NaHCO3), and salinity (80 mM NaCl). Under stress conditions, red and red/blue light had a positive effect on CO2 assimilation. In addition, blue/red light increased intrinsic water use efficiency (WUEi) under both stress conditions. Salinity and alkalinity stress decreased OJIP curves compared to the control treatment. Blue light caused an increase in its in plants under salinity stress, and red and blue/red light caused an increase in its in plants under alkalinity. Both salt and alkalinity stress caused a significant reduction in photosystem II (PSII) performance indices and quantum yield parameters. Adjustment of light spectra, especially red light, increased these parameters. It can be concluded that the adverse effects of salt and alkalinity stress on photosynthesis can be partially alleviated by changing the light spectra.

From salt to hypertension, what is missed?

Excess salt intake is viewed as a major contributor to hypertension and cardiovascular disease, and dietary salt restriction is broadly recommended by public health guidelines. However, individuals can have widely varying physiological responses to salt intake, and a tailored approach to evaluation and intervention may be needed. The traditional sodium related concepts are challenging to assess clinically for two reasons: (1) spot and 24‐hour urine sodium are frequently used to evaluate salt intake, but are more suitable for population study, and (2) some adverse effects of salt may be blood pressure‐independent. In recent years, previously unknown mechanisms of sodium absorption and storage have been discovered. This review will outline the limitations of current methods to assess sodium balance and discuss new potential evaluation methods and treatment targets.

Low Salt Soft Cheese; Compositional Quality and Incidence of Aerobic Spore Forming Bacteria

ABSTRACT Soft white cheese is the principal type of cheese available to all in huge quantities in Egyptian markets .Consumption of low salt soft cheese increased through the last decades due to the adverse effects of salt .The aim of this study was to evaluate compositional quality and incidence of aerobic spore forming bacteria of low salt soft cheese .A total of fifty four samples of Egyptian low salt soft cheese were collected randomly during the period between June and December 2019 from different localities in Alexandria and El Behera Governorates.the respective mean values of pH were(5.83±0.52,5.40±0.70);acidity%(0.53±0.31,0.67±0.35);moisture%(57.95±3.54,56.76±4.91);Fat/DM%(23.72±5.76,25.45±12.99) and salt% (1.80±0.49,1.78±0.62) for Alexandria and El-Behera Governerates, respectively and comparison of these results with Egyptian standard .While mean values of incidence of aerobic spore formers were 8.63×102 ±7.87×102 , 5.71×102±4.10×102 respectively for samples from Alexandria and El-Behera Governerates. There was no significant difference between chemical composition of low salt soft cheese samples from both Governerates, but significant variation of results of aerobic spore formers count in examined soft cheese samples existed between Alexandria and El Behera Governorates. All suggested measures should be taken to improve the quality of low salt soft cheese .

Nitric oxide improved salt stress tolerance by osmolyte accumulation and activation of antioxidant defense system in seedling of B. juncea (L.) Czern

The present manuscript elucidates the cytoprotective role of nitric oxide and its relation with ROS and antioxidants in minimizing the effect of salinity in B. juncea (Indian mustard) which is an important salt tolerant crop of arid and semi arid region. NO alleviates the adverse effect of salt on growth, biomass, relative water content and photosynthesis. At 50 mM NaCl concentration, rapid accumulation of NO was observed that is 2.02 folds higher in roots respectively while in leaves and roots insignificant changes were observed. At higher concentration of salt stress (70–100 mM NaCl), considerable rise in H2O2 content and membrane damage were documented which restrained by the application of 100 µM SNP. NO mitigates the salt stress by regulating the activities of nitrate reductase and other antioxidants. Reduction in NO content was observed in independent treatment of NaCl and SNP in comparison to combined treatment of SNP + NaCl (100 µM SNP + 50 mM NaCl). The different antioxidant enzymes show disparate behaviour with signalling molecule NO. The activity of catalase, guaiacol peroxidase and nitrate reductase were upregulated whereas ascorbate peroxidase was downregulated with NO. The elevated activities of antioxidant and NO accumulation might be responsible for detoxifying the detrimental effect of salinity in B. juncea. The current investigation emphasizes on the potential role of NO in salt stress tolerance by regulating antioxidative defense metabolism, cellular homeostasis and detoxification mechanism in seedlings of B. juncea.

The Influence of Dietary Salt Beyond Blood Pressure.

Excess sodium from dietary salt (NaCl) is linked to elevations in blood pressure (BP). However, salt sensitivity of BP varies widely between individuals and there are data suggesting that salt adversely affects target organs, irrespective of BP. High dietary salt has been shown to adversely affect the vasculature, heart, kidneys, skin, brain, and bone. Common mediators of the target organ dysfunction include heightened inflammation and oxidative stress. These physiological alterations may contribute to disease development over time. Despite the adverse effects of salt on BP and several organ systems, there is controversy surrounding lower salt intakes and cardiovascular outcomes. Our goal here is to review the physiology contributing to BP-independent effects of salt and address the controversy around lower salt intakes and cardiovascular outcomes. We will also address the importance of background diet in modulating the effects of dietary salt.

Knowledge of Salt intake and Blood Pressure Control among Hypertensive Patients in a Tertiary Hospital

As the prevalence of hypertension increases in adult Nigerians, achieving target blood pressure (BP) control has become an important management challenge. High salt intake is an important risk factor for hypertension and its high intake prevents adequate BP control. This study aims to explore the knowledge of salt intake and blood pressure control among hypertensive patients. Data were collected from a cross-sectional sample involving 564 adult hypertensive patients that were followed for at least 3 months prior to recruitment to this study. Data collection comprised interviewer-administered structured questionnaires about demographics, knowledge and practices related to salt, followed by measurement of blood pressure. A majority (92.9%) of the respondents knew that eating too much salt could affect health and less than one-half (40.1%) actually knew that not more than one teaspoon of salt should be consumed daily. Nearly all respondents (516) knew high BP to be a possible consequence of high salt intake. Among those that took a lot of salty food, 87.7% and 78.5% had high systolic BP and diastolic BP respectively. Although the majority of respondents were knowledgeable about the adverse effects of salt, few knew the daily intake recommended value. The higher the dietary salt intake, the higher the chances of having poor BP control. Increased knowledge about recommended salt intake and individual guidance could be important for reducing salt intake in hypertensive patients.

Epibrassinolide and proline alleviate the photosynthetic and yield inhibition under salt stress by acting on antioxidant system in mustard

Soil salinity is one of the major abiotic stress factors that hampers plant growth and productivity by limiting photosynthesis and other related metabolic processes. In this study we investigated whether treatment with proline and/or 24-epibrassinolide (EBL) to two contrasting cultivars of Brassica juncea (L.) Czern and Coss viz. Varuna and RH-30 could counteract with the adverse effects of salinity on photosynthesis and seed yield. Plants were treated with proline and/or 24-epibrassinolide (EBL) at 28 and 29d-stages of growth. Salt stress reduced plant growth, photosynthetic attributes, efficiency of PSII (Fv/Fm), leaf water potential and finally seed yield, at harvest but improved the activity of antioxidant enzymes in both the cultivars in a concentration dependent manner. Exogenous application of EBL with proline completely neutralised the adverse effects of salt at 78 mM or 117 mM stress levels whereas the treatment partially neutralised the impact of highest salt concentration of 156 mM, through the upregulation of the antioxidant system.

Role of bulk and Nanosized SiO2 to overcome salt stress during Fenugreek germination (Trigonella foenum- graceum L.)

ABSTRACTThe effects of bulk and Nanosized SiO2 on seed germination and seedling growth indices of fenugreek under salinity stress were studied in the College of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran, in 2013. The experimental treatments included 4 levels of salinity stress (0, 50, 100 and 150 mM), 2 concentrations of bulk (50 and 100 ppm), 2 concentrations of nanosized SiO2 (50 and 100 ppm), and control (without any SiO2 types). Seedling growth attributes significantly improved when bulk and nanosized SiO2 concentrations applied singly or with different levels of salt stress. However, they significantly declined with salt application. The adverse effects of salt on shoot, root and seedling lengths were alleviated by application of 50 ppm nanosized SiO2 treatment. Under salt stress condition, addition of 50 and 100 ppm nanosized SiO2 to fenugreek seeds increased shoot, root and seedling dry weights as compared to bulk SiO2 concentrations and control treatments, though 50 ppm nanosized SiO2 was more effective than 100 ppm nanosized SiO2 application. It was concluded that nanosized SiO2 improves growth attributes of fenugreek and mitigate adverse effects of salt stress.

Gradual adaptation to salt and dissolved oxygen: Strategies to minimize adverse effect of salinity on aerobic granular sludge

Salinity can affect the performance of biological wastewater treatment in terms of nutrient removal. The effect of salt on aerobic granular sludge (AGS) process in terms of granulation and nutrient removal was examined in this study. Experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of salt (15 g/L NaCl) on granule formation and nutrient removal in AGS system started with flocculent sludge and operated at DO of 2.5 mg/L (phase I). In addition, experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of gradually increasing the salt concentration (2.5 g/L to 15 g/L NaCl) or increasing the DO level (2.5 mg/L to 8 mg/L) on nutrient removal in AGS system started with granular sludge (phase II) taken from an AGS reactor performing well in terms of N and P removal. Although the addition of salt in phase I did not affect the granulation process, it significantly affected nutrient removal due to inhibition of ammonia oxidizing bacteria (AOB) and phosphate accumulating organisms (PAOs). Increasing the DO to 8 mg/L or adapting granules by gradually increasing the salt concentration minimized the adverse effect of salt on nitrification (phase II). However, these strategies were not successful for mitigating the effect of salt on biological phosphorus removal. No nitrite accumulation occurred in all the reactors suggesting that inhibition of biological phosphorus removal was not due to the accumulation of nitrite as previously reported. Also, glycogen accumulating organisms were shown to be more tolerant to salt than PAO II, which was the dominant PAO clade detected in this study. Future studies comparing the salinity tolerance of different PAO clades are needed to further elucidate the effect of salt on PAOs.

Effects of a nationwide strategy to reduce salt intake in Samoa.

Objective:Salt reduction is one of the most cost-effective interventions for the prevention of noncommunicable diseases, but there are no studies evaluating the effectiveness of national strategies in low or lower middle income countries. This study aimed to examine the effect of an 18-month nation-wide salt reduction strategy in Samoa.Methods:Two nationally representative cross-sectional surveys of adults aged 18–64 years, measuring 24-h urinary salt excretion and salt-related knowledge, attitudes and behaviours, were conducted before (2013) and after (2015) the intervention.Results:There were 234 participants at baseline (response rate 47%) and 479 at 18 months (response rate 61%). There was no change in mean population salt intake between 2013 (7.31 g/day) and 2015 (7.50 g/day) (0.19, 95% confidence interval −0.50 to 0.88; P = 0.588). There were significant changes in the proportion of the population who always or often add discretionary salt when eating (−16.2%, P = 0.002), the proportion who understood the adverse effects of salt (+9.0%, P = 0.049) and the proportion using one or more methods to control their salt intake (+20.9%, P < 0.001). A total of 73% reported that they had heard or seen the salt reduction messages.Conclusion:With widespread awareness of the salt reduction message and some improvements in salt-related knowledge and behaviours following the intervention, Samoa is now well positioned to implement much-needed structural initiatives or policies to reduce salt in the food supply.

More evidence that salt increases blood pressure and risk of kidney disease from the Science of Salt: A regularly updated systematic review of salt and health outcomes (April-July 2016).

The purpose of this review is to identify, summarize, and critically appraise studies on dietary salt and health outcomes that were published from April to July 2016. The search strategy was adapted from a previous systematic review on dietary salt and health. We have revised our criteria for methodological quality and health outcomes, which are applied to select studies for detailed critical appraisals and written commentary. Overall, 28 studies were identified and are summarized in this review. Four of the 28 studies met criteria for methodological quality and health outcomes and five studies underwent detailed critical appraisals and commentary. Three of these studies found adverse effects of salt on health outcomes (chronic kidney disease and blood pressure) and two were neutral (fracture risk/bone mineral density and cognitive impairment).