Adventure Tourism Operators Research Articles

Conceptualizing the adventure tourist as a cross-boundary learner

In recent years, the adventure tourism sector has seen new travelers seeking self-transformation, learning, and an expanded worldview rather than risk and thrill. They have attracted attention for their contribution to the local economies. However, their motivation behind seeking such goals through adventure tourism remains unknown. Therefore, this study proposes a hypothesis explaining their transformation. An explanatory hypothesis is that adventure tourists possess the evaluation axis of cross-boundary learners who discover new selves through serendipitous encounters and events. Cross-boundary learning, a part of organizational learning, can be conceptually identified with planned happenstance theory (psychology) and effectuation theory (management) that locates self-transformation source in given non-cognitive abilities. Also, adventure tourists have an “ambivalent value” allowing them to simultaneously evaluate the exploitation of knowledge from the servicescape and the exploration of knowledge from the ethnoscape. This conceptual model thus bridges theory and practice for the development of the adventure tourism industry. Management implicationsThe findings of this study can be summarized as follows.•Adventure tourists have ambivalent values of knowledge exploration and exploitation;•They become adventure tourists when they incidentally encounter ethnoscapes that are specific to and still rooted in the region of their travel destination; and•What makes them adventure tourists is a cross-boundary learning mindset, which can be confirmed by measuring their non-cognitive abilities.Based on the above, the management implications are that adventure tourism operators should.•Focus their attention not only on the sophistication of their services, but also on preserving the ethnoscape of the business area; and•Plan for the generation of communities of practice in destinations that facilitate cross-boundary learning including knowledge exploration and exploitation by travelers.

Regenerative adventure tourism. Going beyond sustainability – a horizon 2050 paper

Purpose This study aims to provide an overview of the regenerative concept and how this can be implemented in adventure travel. It looks into the history of sustainable adventure tourism and showcases best practice examples. This study is encouraging operators within the adventure tourism industry to adopt a regenerative approach. Design/methodology/approach A comprehensive literature review on the paradigm of regenerative tourism has been conducted and applied to the adventure tourism industry. Three case studies of selected adventure tourism operators have been selected to enforce this concept. Findings With nature being an essential element of adventure travel, the industry has a long history in terms of sustainability. While tour operators, destination management organisations and other stakeholders are working towards sustainable products, consumers are still convenient and not willing to restrict themselves. The attitude behaviour gap is also noticeable in this segment and a rethinking is necessary. Through the pandemic and the climate crisis, among other aspects, a shift within the tourism industry is inevitable. Adventure tourism can be a role model in this process and good examples from the industry give hope for change. A concept that focuses on the solutions to address the polycrises is regenerative development, which is based on an ecological worldview and a living systems thinking and aims to restore locally visited communities and environments. Numerous operators have already taken measures to help local communities, such as starting projects for nature conservation or encouraging social justice. Research limitations/implications This is a conceptual review without an empirical foundation. The best-case examples are based on an Anglo-Western perspective. Originality/value To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this study is the first to provide an overview of the current state of research into sustainable adventure tourism and categorise it within the concept of regenerative tourism.

The internal competitive advantage of adventure tourism operators: An exploratory approach

This article, in the field of the strategic management, addresses specifically with the competitiveness of tourism firms. It aimed to analyze the perception of companies operating in adventure tourism in Portugal, focusing on the factors that provide them a competitive advantage, through the lens of a Resource-Based View (RBV) approach. Semiestructured interviews were conducted with 38 Adventure Tourism Operators (ATO). These ATOs were able to identify a wide range of factors that, in their perception, can provide internal competitive advantage, Human Resources being the most mentioned factor. It was noticed that the focus of competitive advantage relies mainly on Resources and Operational Capabilities. Dynamic Capabilities are not frequently referred by firms. Due to the characteristics of this sector in Portugal, we concluded that achieving competitive advantage in Adventure Tourism must be difficult and that these ATOs are in competitive parity. This article focuses on competitiveness in Adventure Tourism Operators (ATO) in Portugal, a subject that we considered under studied, more specifically, in the internal perspective of competitive advantage. The results highlight that ATOs effectively recognize some competitive advantage factors, but these are mainly based on resources and operational capabilities that are not rare or inimitable. Considering that Adventure Tourism is a predominantly service sector, competitive advantage might rely on the improvement of dynamic capabilities in order to make firms able to better explore their resources and develop dynamic competences, like innovation, partnership development and strategic thinking.

How can we adventure sustainably? A systematized review of sustainability guidance for adventure tourism operators

Adventure tourism operators have historically drawn upon a range of broad, multi-purpose sustainability frameworks to provide experiences that are more ecologically and socially just. However, these efforts have been hindered by the need to interpret and translate large volumes of diverse sustainability guidance, which is often unclear or prohibitively complex in terms of how it can be applied to specific adventure operations. This paper aims to address this issue by (1) identifying the primary types of sustainability guidance available for adventure operators; (2) critiquing the benefits and limitations of each form of guidance; and (3) making recommendations for research and practice. The inquiry employed a systematized review methodology, informed by Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, to interrogate the various forms of sustainability guidance available to adventure tour operators. The analysis revealed three broad categories of guidance: Paid Memberships and Certifications, Guidelines and Frameworks, and Pledges and Declarations. The findings demonstrate how each of these categories brings distinct benefits and limitations to operators, depending on their size and scope of provision. Implications for practice are offered, in terms of how existing frameworks might be adopted and/or alternative approaches to integrating and monitoring sustainability initiatives developed. Suggestions for further research include examining adventure travellers' and operators' perceptions of the three different categories of guidance found in the current study, and the ways in which operators engage with this guidance.

Idealizing adventure tourism experiences: tourists’ self-assessment and expectations

Travelers often idealize and develop individual expectations for their adventure experiences through a romanticized “adventure mythology”. The research has focused primarily on the motivations ( why ); on the feelings of the participants during this type of experience ( what ); and on their satisfaction and future behaviour. Studies on how tourists expect their adventure activities to unfold have not had the same attention, although the Experience Economy emphasizes the importance of minimizing customer sacrifice. This paper intends to provide insights into traveler's expectations regarding adventure tourism experiences. In the Azores, an emergent island adventure destination, 393 questionnaires were gathered, and 26 items regarding these expectations were analyzed using several statistical methods. The results show that there may exist some conflicting issues when tourists idealize their adventure experiences and that tourists' capabilities and reactions may not match their fantasies. Adventure tourists seem closer to the commodified version of adventure than to the concept of “original adventure”. Results indicate that, generally, tourists idealize their experiences based on six basic elements: physical engagement, interaction with nature, immersive fantasy, self-reliance, unpredictability, and preparation. Differences were detected among some specific groups (for instance, among Portuguese and foreign tourists). The findings seem to reveal two opposing self-assessment adventure profiles: “reluctant adventurers” and “eager adventurers”. A hypothetical framework for the spectrum of adventure tourism experiences expectations is proposed. Adventure tourism operators can resort to these findings to elaborate pull strategies based on the adventure mythology, while adjusting their experiences to specific targets.

The South African Adventure Tourism Economy: An urban phenomenon

Abstract The international adventure tourism literature is remarkably silent on the geographical nature of the industry. This study seeks to provide a geographical analysis of the sector within the context of South Africa. The spatial analysis was undertaken by metropolitan area, secondary towns and small towns, using a dataset of adventure tourism enterprises. It was found that the sector is spatially concentrated and highly urbanised, despite the perception that adventure tourism requires ‘wild’ and outdoor spaces. With many adventure tourism enterprises located in South Africa’s metropolitan areas, it is a hither too unknown sub-sector of the South African urban tourism market. Urban settlements with large populations and a strong general tourism sector form a significant support base for adventure tourism operators. Cape Town is the dominant adventure tourism destination, making it the adventure capital of South Africa. A few small settlements were found to be highly dependent upon the sector for survival.

Instructors’ Perspectives on Risk Management within Adventure Tourism

ABSTRACTExisting research on risk management in adventure tourism has primarily focused on the participant’s motivation, perception and experience of taking part in the risky activities. Within this research strand, injuries and fatalities caused by participation in adventure tourism have been consistently examined and policy-making mechanisms discussed to prevent their future occurrence. This study adopts a different perspective as it explores how risk is perceived and managed by instructors. Better understanding of this topic should enhance future risk management strategies in adventure tourism, thus improving safety and well-being of both participants and instructors. The outcome of a qualitative study conducted with adventure tourism operators in Dorset, UK, shows that the increased popularity of the industry has caused companies to take advantage of profit margins. There is evidence that instructors cut corners when managing risks which raises the probability of accidents as a result. The study outlines a number of areas for policy-making intervention required to enhance the quality of risk management practices in adventure tourism. These include the need for policy reinforcement of the safety standards; specialist training opportunities made available to instructors and regular qualification re-assessment exercises.

A Tri-Method Approach to a Review of Adventure Tourism Literature: Bibliometric Analysis, Content Analysis, and a Quantitative Systematic Literature Review

This article provides an objective, systematic, and integrated review of the Western academic literature on adventure tourism to discover the theoretical foundations and key themes underlying the field by combining three complementary approaches of bibliometric analysis, content analysis, and a quantitative systematic review. A total of 114 publications on adventure tourism were identified that revealed three broad areas of foci with adventure tourism research: (1) adventure tourism experience, (2) destination planning and development, and (3) adventure tourism operators. Adventure tourism has an intellectual tradition from multiple disciplines, such as the social psychology of sport and recreation. There is an underrepresentation of studies examining non-Western tourists in their own geographic contexts or non-Western tourists in Western geographic contexts. Our findings pave ways for developing a more robust framework and holistic understanding of the adventure tourism field.

Monitoring Injury in the New Zealand Adventure Tourism Sector: An Operator Survey

Client safety is a major risk management concern for the commercial adventure tourism sector in New Zealand. This study built on previous exploratory analyses of New Zealand adventure tourism safety, including industry surveys conducted by these authors in 1999 and 2003. The aims of the study were to provide a continuation of injury monitoring across the sector through data collected from self-reported injury incidence by industry operators and to compare findings with those from other primary and secondary research studies conducted by the authors. A postal questionnaire was used to survey all identifiable New Zealand adventure tourism operators during 2006. The questionnaire asked respondents about their recorded client injury experience, perceptions of client injury risk factors, and safety management practices. Some 21 adventure tourism activities were represented among the responding sample (n = 127), with most operations being very small in terms of staff numbers, although responding operators catered to nearly 1 million clients in total annually. Highest ranked risk factors for client injury included clients not following instructions; level of client skill, ability, and fitness; and changeable/unpredictable weather conditions. Highest client injury was reported for horse riding, ecotourism, and white water rafting sectors, although serious underreporting of minor injuries was evidenced across the sector. Slips, trips, and falls were the most frequently reported injury mechanism, while safety management measures were inconsistently applied across the sector. The industry should address reporting culture issues and safety management practices generally. Specifically, the industry should consider risk management that focuses on minor (eg, falls) as well as catastrophic events.

Selling adventure tourism: a distribution channels perspective

AbstractThis paper examines the distribution channels structure as well as the underlying factors influencing the most prominent channel choices within the adventure tourism industry. It is based on in‐depth interviews with adventure tourism operators in Queenstown, New Zealand. The findings suggest that the distribution structure is similar to other attraction sectors and that business size has some bearing on the ‘length’ of the distribution chains. However, regardless of business size, the sector places a clear priority on ‘at destination’ distribution, and the factors underlying this choice were found to be varied and reflective of both sector‐specific demand and supply characteristics. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Risk Management for Australian Commercial Adventure Tourism Operations

Society’s awareness of risks posed by environmental, industrial, and biological hazards has never been greater (Kolluru, 1996; Smith 2001). This awareness reflects the fact that most people want to live and flourish in a safe society, protected from danger and injury. On the face of it, the rapid growth of Australia’s adventure tourism industry over the last three decades seemingly counters the development of the safe society; this is because adventure tourism satisfies a tourist’s desire to engage in risk-taking behaviors. But do tourists really wish toface a real and likely possibility of injury occurring to them? We argue here that most adventure tourists seek simultaneously safe and exciting experiences. Adventure tourism operators provide suitable adventure experiences by managing the range of inherent hazards and risk.

Safety in New Zealand's adventure tourism industry: the client accident experience of adventure tourism operators.

Injuries and fatalities among participants of adventure tourism activities have the potential to seriously impact on New Zealand's tourism industry. However, the absence of statistics for tourist accidents in New Zealand, and the lack of detailed academic research into adventure tourism safety, means the extent of the problem is unknown. The aims of the present study were to determine the incidence of client injuries across a range of adventure tourism activity sectors, and to identify common accident events and contributory risk factors. A postal questionnaire survey of New Zealand adventure tourism operators was used. Operators were asked to provide information related to their business; the number of recorded client injuries during the preceding 12 month period, January to December 1998; common accident and injury events associated with their activity; and perceived risk factors for accidents in their sector of the adventure tourism industry. The survey was responded to by 142 New Zealand adventure tourism operators. The operators' reported client injury experience suggests the incidence of serious client injuries is very low. Highest client injury incidence rates were found for activities that involved the risk of falling from a moving vehicle or animal (e.g., cycle tours, quad biking, horse riding, and white-water rafting). Slips, trips, and falls on the level were common accident events across most sectors of the industry. Perceived accident/incident causes were most commonly related to the client, and in particular, failure to attend to and follow instructions. The prevalence of client injuries in activity sectors not presently covered by government regulation, suggests policy makers should look again at extending codes of practice to a wider range of adventure tourism activities. Further research considering adventure tourism involvement in overseas visitor hospitalized injuries in New Zealand, is currently in progress. This will provide supporting evidence for the risk associated with participation in a range of commercial and independently undertaken adventure activities.

The Safety Experience of New Zealand Adventure Tourism Operators

This survey examined parameters of the New Zealand adventure tourism industry client injury risk. The research also sought to establish priorities for intervention to reduce adventure tourism risk, and identify client injury control measures currently in place (or absent) in the New Zealand adventure tourism industry, with a view to establishing guidelines for the development of effective adventure tourism safety management systems. This 2003 survey builds upon an exploratory study of New Zealand adventure tourism safety conducted by us during 1999. A postal questionnaire was used to survey all identifiable New Zealand adventure tourism operators. The questionnaire asked respondents about their recorded client injury experience, perceptions of client injury risk factors, safety management practices, and barriers to safety. Some 27 adventure tourism activities were represented among the responding sample (n=96). The highest client injury risk was reported in the snow sports, bungee jumping and horse riding sectors, although serious underreporting of minor injuries was evident across the industry. Slips, trips and falls (STF) were the major client injury mechanisms, and a range of risk factors for client injuries were identified. Safety management measures were inconsistently applied across the industry. The industry should consider the implications of poor injury reporting standards and safety management practices generally. Specifically, the industry should consider risk management that focuses on minor (e.g., STF) as well as catastrophic events.

Close to the “edge”: Critical issues for adventure tourism operators

In recent years, there has been explosive growth in adventure tourism, with large numbers of consumers seeking novel, challenging and exciting adventure experiences while on holiday. Specialized adventure operators have emerged to cater for this demand, with a diverse range of commercialized activities now available. Adventure tourism demand is predicted to grow at around 15% per year (Burak, 1998), and as demand grows, adventure travel companies are urging consumers to go higher, harder, stronger and longer to gain the “ultimate” experience. Unfortunately, despite this growing demand, symbiotically there are large numbers of new companies joining the adventure industry and this is putting pressure on resources. As a result, competitive market pressures are forcing adventure tourism operators to cut corners in order to remain financially viable, and issues such as sustainability of natural resources come to the fore. It is contended in this paper that many adventure tour companies are operating “close to the edge” in terms of their operating practices, indicating a short-term perspective for the industry. Adventure tour operators need to address the critical issues of: protecting the natural environment; protecting tourists from potential risks; and protecting long-term market share through better understanding adventure customers' needs and wants. If adventure tourism operators address these issues now, it will help to provide a long-term and sustainable future for this sector of the tourism industry.

Playing with risk? participant perceptions of risk and management implications in adventure tourism

Adventure tourism is a rapidly expanding tourism market segment. It is suggested that adventure travel and its related expenditure contribute $220 billion annually to the US economy alone (http://www.adventuretravel.com/seminar_home.htm). However, recent high-profile tragedies in adventure tourism might suggest that participation does not come without its risks. Existing literature would suggest that the pursuit of these risks is a central attraction of these activities. However, drawing on research conducted in the self-styled ‘Adventure Capital of the World’, Queenstown in New Zealand, the author suggests that this is a simplistic view of adventurous motivation. The research shows that rather than demanding actual risks, participants engaging in commercial adventurous activity primarily seek fear and thrills. The most successful adventure tourism operators are those that have reduced their actual risk levels whilst effectively commodifying the thrills within. Thus the responsibility of the commercial operator to minimise the opportunity for loss to as low a level as possible is not only an ethical one, but also ensures long-term business sustainability.

Managing risk in adventure tourism operations in New Zealand: a review of the legal case history and potential for litigation

The growth of adventure tourism in New Zealand has contributed to its image as an activity destination, reflected in the growth of the adventure tourism sector since 1992. There has also been a growing concern over the safety and management of these activities within the New Zealand government and tourism industry. This paper examines the changing legal framework for tourism in New Zealand, where the no-fault accident compensation legislation no longer covers all tourist accidents and injuries within its scheme. The paper reviews both the accident compensation legislation, recent legal precedents as evidenced in court cases and judgements which challenge the perception that no-faults compensation covers all accident eventualities. The consequences for adventure tourism operators in relation to tourist accidents and injuries is discussed and implications for health and safety are highlighted.

How safe is adventure tourism in New Zealand? An exploratory analysis

The paper reports findings from a multidisciplinary programme of research, the major aims of which were to determine the nature and extent of the New Zealand adventure tourism injury problem. Analysis of hospital discharge and mortality data for a 15-year period identified adventure tourism-related activities as contributing to approximately 20% of overseas visitor injuries, and 22% of fatalities. Activities that commonly involve independent-unguided adventure tourism, notably mountaineering, skiing and tramping, contributed most to injury and fatality incidence. Horse riding and cycling activities were identified from hospital discharge data and adventure tourism operators’ reported client injury-incidence, as the commercial adventure tourism activities most frequently involved in client injuries. Falls were the most common injury events, and a range of client, equipment, environmental and organisational risk factors were identified. Possible interventions to reduce injury risk among overseas and domestic adventure tourists are discussed.

Accidents in the New Zealand adventure tourism industry

The New Zealand adventure tourism industry was surveyed to determine the incidence of client accidents and injuries and to investigate operators’ accident investigation and reporting behaviour. The 142 adventure tourism operators who responded to the survey represented a wide and diverse range of adventure activities, including kayaking, white water rafting, mountain recreation, horse riding and guided walks. Businesses surveyed were concentrated in locations acknowledged as main centres of adventure tourism activity. Operators were asked a number of questions regarding their accident notification, investigation and reporting behaviour. Poorest accident reporting performance was found for smaller operators, and among operators from the least regulated sectors of the adventure tourism industry. A very low incidence of client injuries was reported by operators, suggesting accidents and injuries are being seriously under-reported in some sectors. Highest client injury-incidence rates were found for activities that involved the risk of falling from a moving vehicle or animal (cycle tours, quad biking, horse riding and white water rafting). Operators from these sectors frequently reported ‘falls from a height’ as accidents involving clients. Slips, trips and falls on the level were common across most sectors of the industry. A conceptual model of operators’ perceptions of common risk factors for accidents/incidents involving clients is presented. Recommendations for intervention and further research are discussed.

Risk, Competence and Adventure Tourists: Applying the Adventure Experience Paradigm to White-Water Rafters

The utility of the Adventure Experience Paradigm (AEP) as a framework for studying participants' experiences in a water-based adventure tourism activity is examined using a convenience sample of white-water rafters (N = 84) in New Zealand. Participants were grouped into challenge conditions based on their self-reports of post-adventure risk and competence. Group comparisons revealed a number of statistically significant differences on the measures of perceived fear, danger, anxiousness, and control (p < .05). However, the results were inconclusive for the concentration measure and no differences were evident on the boredom measure. Implications for adventure tourism operators are suggested and future research recommended.

Unintentional Injury in New Zealand: Priorities and Future Directions

The paper reports findings from a multidisciplinary programme of research, the major aims of which were to determine the nature and extent of the New Zealand adventure tourism injury problem. Analysis of hospital discharge and mortality data for a 15-year period identified adventure tourism-related activities as contributing to approximately 20% of overseas visitor injuries, and 22% of fatalities. Activities that commonly involve independent-unguided adventure tourism, notably mountaineering, skiing and tramping, contributed most to injury and fatality incidence. Horse riding and cycling activities were identified from hospital discharge data and adventure tourism operators’ reported client injury-incidence, as the commercial adventure tourism activities most frequently involved in client injuries. Falls were the most common injury events, and a range of client, equipment, environmental and organisational risk factors were identified. Possible interventions to reduce injury risk among overseas and domestic adventure tourists are discussed.