Adult Offenders Research Articles

Exploring the relationship between criminal narrative experience (CNE) and criminal thinking, among sexual offenders

Purpose The criminal narrative experience (CNE) framework posits that criminals’ personal experiences of offending can be differentiated into distinct narrative themes. This study aims to examine whether CNE themes of sexual offenders (SO) was related to particular cognitive distortions (criminal thinking). Additionally, given previously identified psychological differences between child SO and SO that target adults, the study also compared CNE and criminal thinking styles between these SO groups. Design/methodology/approach Twenty-six adult male offenders convicted for sexual crimes completed a survey composed of the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (Version 4) and a Criminal Narrative Experience Questionnaire which identified two narrative themes of sexual offending (The Intrepid Professional-Adventurer, IPA; and The Dejected Revenger Victim, DRV). Findings Analyses failed to identify significant relationships between CNE themes and most of the criminal thinking styles. However, offenders reporting the DRV narrative displayed greater fears about the prospect of changing. Additionally, child SO displayed the IPA narrative more than SO that targeted adults. Practical implications The CNE framework can assist practitioners who are working towards a goal of desistance, as the experience of crime from the perspective of the offender is understood through their narrative roles and emotional experience. Identifying an individual’s strongest CNE theme could aid practitioners in identifying and planning interventions which challenge the distorted thinking. Originality/value This study is the first to examine the relationship between CNE and cognitive distortions that enable (re)offending.

Exploring Factors Related to the Process of Desistance from Crime: A Qualitative Study of Females in the UK

ABSTRACT Less is known about the process of desistance from crime for females within the criminal justice system. The current study explored the views and experiences in a sample of adult female offenders in the UK. Ten women took part in semi-structured interviews. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis. The following themes were identified: Skills and Attributes; Support; Purpose in Life; Risk Factors; and Consequences. The findings provide support for existing theories of desistance including cognitive transformation theory, social control and identity theory of desistance. The findings add to the growing evidence in the field of desistance from crime in female offenders.

Court-ordered forensic psychiatry treatment in prison: determinants of outcome and risk mitigation.

Court-ordered forensic psychiatry treatments (COT) are specifically designed to reduce the risk of violence in mentally disordered offenders. Given their high costs and ethical issues, mental health professionals need admission criteria to be able to select those candidates with optimal benefit. This study analyses offender-related and treatment-related determinants of COT outcome and risk mitigation. This two-year longitudinal study assessed the evolution of 117 adult offenders admitted to a specialized medium-security forensic psychiatry clinic. Treatment outcome included court-ordered discharge locations and the Historical Clinical Risk Management (HCR) score evolution. Treatment progress was assessed every six months across five time-points including measures of protective factors, work rehabilitation and security. Outcome determinants included psychiatric diagnosis and type of offence. Discharge locations are predicted by pre-treatment risk level. Lower HCR scores are associated with discharge into low-security psychiatry wards independently of the psychiatric diagnosis. Risk reduction follows diagnosis-specific and offense-related patterns and reveals that mentally disordered offenders with Cluster B personality disorders or those sentenced for drug crimes are significantly less prone to benefit from COT. Our findings indicate that criminological characteristics at baseline as well as diagnosis of personality disorders are the main determinants of treatment outcome in our care setting. Inmates with concomitant higher violence risk at baseline and presence of Cluster B personality disorders might benefit the least from court-ordered forensic inpatient psychiatric care in prison.

An out-of-court community-based programme to improve the health and well-being of young adult offenders: the Gateway RCT.

Young adults represent a third of the United Kingdom prison population and are at risk of poor health outcomes, including drug and alcohol misuse, self-harm and suicide. Court diversion interventions aim to reduce the negative consequences of criminal sanctions and address the root causes of offending. However, evidence of their effectiveness has not yet been established. The Gateway programme, issued as a conditional caution, aimed to improve the life chances of young adults committing low-level offences. Participants agreed not to reoffend during the 16-week caution and, following a needs assessment, received individual support from a Gateway navigator and attended two workshops encouraging analysis of own behaviour and its consequences. To evaluate the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of Gateway in relation to health and well-being of participants compared to usual process (court summons or a different conditional caution). Pragmatic, multisite, parallel-group, superiority randomised controlled trial with two 6-month internal pilots and a target sample size of 334. Randomisation between Gateway and usual process was on a 1 : 1 basis. Four Hampshire Constabulary sites recruited 18- to 24-year-old residents of Hampshire and Isle of Wight who were questioned for an eligible low-level offence. Semistructured interviews were also held with a sample of Gateway programme participants, staff and police study recruiters. Primary outcome was the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale score at 12 months. Secondary outcomes included health status, alcohol and drug use, recidivism and resource use. Recruitment commenced in October 2019 and the trial stopped in April 2021. A total of 191 participants were recruited, with 109 randomised to Gateway and 82 to usual process. Due to an initial overestimation of potentially eligible young people and low retention rates, recruitment targets were adjusted, and a range of mitigating measures introduced. Although recruitment broadly met study progression criteria [35/50 (70%) Pilot 1: 64/74 (86%) Pilot 2], retention was low throughout (overall: data collected at week 4 was 50%: at week 16 it was 50%: 1-year 37%). Low retention was multifactorial, with one of the main barriers being difficulties contacting participants. It was therefore not possible to complete the randomised controlled trial or the health economics analyses. Qualitative interviews held with 58 individuals yielded rare insights into the benefits and limitations of this type of intervention, as well as barriers and facilitators in relation to recruitment in this setting. Despite close collaboration with the police to address recruitment and consent issues, expansion of the inclusion criteria and recruitment area and introducing other measures, the researchers were unable to collect sufficient data within an acceptable timeframe. The Gateway study was a unique endeavour to gather evidence for a potentially life-changing intervention for an underserved population. The experience gained indicates that randomised controlled trials of interventions, with a health-related outcome, are possible in this setting but point towards the need for conservative recruitment and retention estimates in this target population. Other study designs should be considered. The qualitative evaluation provided a range of valuable lessons for those seeking to design similar interventions or conduct research in similar settings. This study is registered as ISRCTN11888938. This award was funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Public Health Research programme (NIHR award ref: 16/122/20) and is published in full in Public Health Research; Vol. 12, No. 7. See the NIHR Funding and Awards website for further award information.

A descriptive evaluation of children presenting with Technology Assisted-Harmful Sexual Behaviour (TA-HSB) within a regional Forensic Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service (FCAMHS)

ABSTRACT Unsupervised technology use by children is increasing rapidly and with it, a common area of crime is emerging: Technology Assisted-Harmful Sexual Behaviour (TA-HSB). Previous research has demonstrated that there are significant differences between adult offenders displaying TA-HSB, offline Harmful Sexual Behaviour (offline HSB) and those displaying both (dual HSB). This study aimed to investigate these differences further within a community adolescent forensic population over a period of four years (1 April 2018 to 31 March 2022). The demographic characteristics and TA-HSB typologies of an adolescent forensic population who were displaying TA-HSB (n = 43), offline HSB (n = 116) and dual HSB (n = 130) were examined. The implications for future research are discussed. PRACTICE IMPACT STATEMENT This evaluation promotes a greater sense of awareness and knowledge of the characteristics of young people engaging in TA-HSB in a community adolescent forensic service and the incidence and types of TA-HSB they engage in. Findings help develop an understanding of risk formulation, differential needs and support of young people presenting with TA-HSB.

Adolescent offenders' experiences of father involvement in a South African context

AbstractObjectiveThe study's aim was to explore and describe adolescent offenders' experiences of their fathers' involvement before and during their own incarceration in a South African context.BackgroundResearch on father involvement is focused predominantly on adult offenders' experiences of father involvement without emphasis on adolescents' experiences regarding father involvement, including in a South African context.MethodsA qualitative explorative‐descriptive research design was employed. A nonprobability, purposive sampling technique was used, and the sample size was determined through data saturation. The sample included nine male adolescents between the ages of 17 and 19 years from a correctional center in Pretoria, South Africa. Semistructured individual interviews and drawings made by participants were used as the data collection methods and data were analyzed thematically.ResultsTwo main themes with subthemes were identified: Experiences of father absence before and/or during incarceration and desires for and suggestions to improve father involvement.ConclusionThe findings are primarily indicative of the general lack of father involvement and fatherly support experienced by participants.ImplicationsThe findings highlight the need for adolescent offenders to have access to counseling or therapy and intervention programs suitable for juvenile correctional centers focusing specifically on providing young, incarcerated, male adolescents with paternal role models that can help foster a sense of ethical and moral guidance and provision of different forms of support. Father intervention programs including men's talks, motivational speaking, and psychoeducational programs to advise fathers on how to be more involved in their children's lives are recommended.

Exploring criminal specialisation in co-offending groups

ABSTRACT Researchers have studied criminal specialisation at the offenders’ level to understand criminal careers. Despite criminal careers comprising events in which offenders co-offend with others, we know less about the extent of co-offending groups showing signs of becoming specialists. To start addressing this gap, in this study we report a method through which we identified 1,796 co-offending groups in a network containing information about adult offenders (n = 76,697) connected to criminal investigations (m = 35,604) between 2010 and 2018. During this timeframe, one in five co-offending groups remained unchanged in their composition and re-offended. Of those re-offending, 54% became specialists in crimes such as those affecting private property. The other 46% that re-offended were generalists. Simulation analyses showed that the proportion of highly specialised groups was not observed by chance. These results suggest that criminal specialisation is a characteristic also shared by co-offending groups. Criminologists and practitioners might find helpful the method employed here to identify co-offending groups and assess their level of specialisation.

Juvenile Justice in the United Kingdom and Hong Kong: Historical and Modern Perspectives

The 19th century saw the introduction of numerous acts in the United Kingdom relating to juvenile justice that emphasised rehabilitation and sought to protect the rights of child offenders. Since then, legislative and institutional changes have generally increased the leniency of the law towards acts of juvenile delinquency, but exceptional cases involving child killers have raised jurisprudential concerns relating to these acts. This paper explores the question of punishment in criminal law from the Victorian era onward, focusing on the disparity in treatment between juvenile and adult offenders, and summarises the relevant extant U.K. and Hong Kong legislation. The case of Sharon Carr, a woman convicted of murder for a thrill stabbing she had committed at age 12, is examined with a comparative approach with the judgement of Mary Bell, who was convicted of manslaughter for strangling two toddler boys. A conclusion on the evolution of the juvenile justice system through jurisprudential perspectives will be offered.

Restorative justice for adult offenders in South Australia: judicial perspectives and insights

ABSTRACT Restorative justice seeks to address harms arising from criminal conduct, with a focus that extends beyond punishment. While Australia has embraced restorative justice practices for young and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander offenders, programs for adult offenders have been comparatively slow to progress. Despite the reliance on judicial officers as the primary referral mechanism, there is limited research examining their views of restorative justice, particularly in the context of adult offenders. This paper presents the findings from a survey and interviews with judicial officers in one Australian jurisdiction: South Australia. There was clear support for restorative justice measures for adult offenders for a broad range of offences. Some concerns were raised with respect to victims’ safety, and the additional time and resources that restorative justice expends. Overall, the study found that the judicial officers who participated would welcome the introduction of a restorative justice program for adult offenders. With this support, and the potential benefits of restorative justice for victims, offenders, and the community, South Australia should consider extending its restorative justice offerings to adult offenders.

Lost diagnoses? A multi-year trajectory of patients with childhood ADHD in the criminal justice system in Switzerland.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is prevalent amongst offenders, increasing risks for aggressive and delinquent behaviors. Since ADHD and its symptoms can persist into adulthood, accurately diagnosing and maintaining diagnoses in offenders is crucial to ensure appropriate treatment and reduce recidivism. This study employed a retrospective longitudinal design to investigate ADHD amongst adult offenders with a confirmed diagnosis of ADHD during childhood or adolescence at a Swiss forensic outpatient clinic between 2008 and 2021. N = 181 patient files were reviewed, including forensic expert witness assessments and treatment reports. We charted the adulthood trajectory of patients with a confirmed childhood/adolescence ADHD diagnosis, examining the course of their diagnoses. Of 181 patients, evidence indicated that 12 (7%) had an ADHD diagnosis in childhood/adolescence. In 1 (8%) of these 12 cases, the diagnosis was maintained throughout the observation period. For 4 patients (33%), a diagnosis was given in the first forensic psychiatric expert witness assessment in adulthood but subsequently dropped. In another 4 cases (33%), the diagnosis was dropped in adulthood but later re-assigned, whereas in 3 cases (25%), the diagnosis was discontinued throughout the observation period. In 50% of cases with a diagnostic change, the discontinuation of an adult ADHD diagnosis coincided with a newly diagnosed personality disorder (or vice versa). Our findings highlighted considerable inconsistencies in the assignment of adult ADHD diagnoses amongst offenders. Whilst ADHD remission in adulthood occurs, the diagnostic variability in our results warrants detailed scrutiny. One possibility is that ADHD has similar fluctuations to conditions like depression, as argued elsewhere. Equally, diagnoses may become "lost", meaning they are not given even when applicable and replaced by other diagnoses. Additionally, residual symptoms may remain but beyond the diagnostic threshold. This is significant because untreated ADHD can increase re-offending risks and adverse health outcomes.

The Role of Translanguaging in Teaching Mathematics at Adult Correctional Centre Classrooms in South Africa

This paper sought to explore the use of the translanguaging strategy as the means for decolonising and advancing the teaching of mathematics procedural fluency. From the pragmatic epistemological stance, the study collected both qualitative and quantitative data from the group of fifty purposively sampled adult offenders. The intervention study inferred data from pre-tests, post-tests, and semi-structured interviews. The data, which was analysed using SPSS and the thematic analysis approach, through the conceptual framework of teaching adult offenders mathematics procedural fluency through the isiZulu-English translanguaging strategy, indicate that the use of the translanguaging strategy yields satisfactory performance in adult offenders’ mathematics procedural fluency. The study further discovered that the translanguaging strategy leads to the decolonization of the mathematics curriculum and the development of isiZulu and English languages in correctional centre classrooms. The researcher recommends the use of the translanguaging strategy and fluidity in the use of any repertoires in the teaching of mathematics procedural fluency, conceptual understanding, and factual knowledge within the context of correctional centre classrooms. The researcher further concludes that translanguaging is applicable, and resourceful in all mathematics educational contexts, and it leads to the decolonization of the mathematics curriculum for both children and adults, in all contexts. The paper contributed to the scholarship by exploring the mathematics learning, teaching and assessment processes and the role of translanguaging thereof in correctional centre classrooms. Keywords: Translanguaging, Correctional Centre, Mathematics Classroom, Mathematics Procedural Fluency, Adult Offenders, Educationists

Emotion Regulation Difficulties and Callous-Unemotional Traits: The Role of Guilt Across Samples of Incarcerated Male Adult Offenders

ABSTRACT The study aimed to: (1) analyze differences between psychopathic and non-psychopathic offenders in terms of difficulties in emotion regulation and callous-unemotional traits, (2) investigate the association between difficulties in emotion regulation and callous-unemotional traits among psychopathic and non-psychopathic offenders, and (3) examine the mediation role of guilt in the relationship between difficulties in emotion regulation and callous-unemotional traits among non-psychopathic offenders, controlling for the level of desirable responses. The participants were 191 incarcerated male adult offenders serving their sentences in closed and semi-open custody. The incarcerated offenders participated in a semi-structured interview and completed self-report measures of emotion dysregulation, guilt, callous-unemotional traits, and social desirability. According to the results on the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised, 60 (27.9%) participants were included in the psychopathic group, while 131 (60.9%) were non-psychopathic. The results showed a positive relationship between difficulties in emotion regulation, callousness, and psychopathy. The multiple regression analysis indicated that guilt contributed to the variance of callousness. Guilt was a mediator in the relationship between difficulties in emotion regulation and callousness among the group of non-psychopathic incarcerated offenders. The current study highlighted the importance of guilt as an adaptive moral emotion useful in the treatment of several psychological problems among male offenders.

PRINT® Survey as an Opportunity-Reduction Supervision Tool: Outcomes for Justice-Involved Individuals on Supervised Release

Using an environmental corrections and opportunity-reduction framework, this study examined whether offender relapse, new crimes and revocation outcomes would improve if supervision officers utilized personality instrument results during individual meetings. Adult male and female offenders on federal supervised release (245 in the treatment group and 271 in the comparison group) were tracked for a minimum of 2 years. Revocation rates for the treatment/PRINT group were significantly lower than the comparison group. Results suggested that opportunity reduction strategies from the PRINT instrument may have contributed to lower revocation rates. However, the techniques learned may not have been strong enough to offset the strong habitual and reactionary pull of relapse, or complications caused by involvement in a new crime.

Reoffending after convictions related to child sexual exploitation material: Data from the German Federal Central Criminal Register

BackgroundAs digitalization has made it easier to produce, copy, and distribute child sexual exploitation material (CSEM), the possession and distribution of child sexual abuse images has become more widespread. Thus, the need to assess the risk of subsequent sex offenses – above all, sexual abuse of children by individuals who have been convicted of CSEM offenses – becomes more and more important. ObjectiveThe main objective of this paper is to contribute to the understanding of the respective size of two groups of offenders: first, offenders who commit CSEM offenses without ever crossing the line to sexual abuse of children, and second, so-called crossover offenders, that is, individuals who commit CSEM offenses and engage in child sexual abuse. Identification of differences between these two groups facilitates analyzing the risk that someone convicted of a CSEM offense might in the future sexually assault children. MethodWe used data from the German Federal Central Criminal Register (Bundeszentralregister), a data set that includes information about all persons convicted of any criminal offense, including “child pornography” offenses, by a court in Germany. ResultsFor persons convicted of CSEM offenses only, with no additional concurring sex offenses, the rate of subsequent convictions for child sexual abuse is very low (1.1 % after a six-year follow-up period, adult offenders). This risk is even lower if offenders are older than 30 years of age, and it is slightly higher for offenders with previous offense-specific convictions (i.e., previous sex offenses). ConclusionsThe mere existence of a conviction for a CSEM offense is not an indication that the convicted person poses a significant risk of committing child sexual abuse. To pinpoint such a risk more accurately, the following factors should be examined: the existence of offense-specific prior records, the presence of crossover-offending in the form of concurring offenses, and the age of the offender.

“It's Like a Limb Is Missing”: The Lived Experience of Mothers of Adult Sex Offending Sons

The impact of mass incarceration has been wide-reaching, affecting not only those who are incarcerated, but substantially burdening their family members. Parents of incarcerated individuals often carry the emotional and financial burden of incarceration, in addition to the stigma of having a child behind bars. Supporting a loved one or child incarcerated for a sexual offense can exacerbate the burden, particularly due to the stigma and shame attached to such acts. This is especially evident in the experiences of mothers navigating this challenging circumstance. Using data from the Facebook group, incarcerated loved ones, and through a phenomenological approach, six themes emerged. The themes included painful emotions, physical health impacts, barriers and challenges, systemic issues, mental health services, advocacy, and support. Clinical and policy implications are embedded into the discussion and future research directions are provided.

A pilot study regarding the feasibility and efficacy of an outpatient treatment program for young adult high-risk offenders (YAHOP).

This pilot study examines whether the Young Adult Habitual Offender Program (YAHOP), an intensive and outpatient program, is related to a reduction in the general risk of recidivism, common forensic symptomology as well as cognitive distortions. The program integrity (PI) was assessed, with the intent to explore the relationship between the level of PI and any changes in several outcome variables. Additionally, the study examines whether participants with a migration background benefitted equally from YAHOP compared to participants with a native Dutch background. The sample comprised n = 90 high-risk young adult offenders. Results show a decrease in general risk of recidivism. The dynamic risk factors delinquent social network, insufficient impulse control, and dysfunctional problem-solving skills also show a decrease, as well as the forensic symptoms of aggression and anger. Effect sizes are small, except for anger, which has a medium effect size. We found no change in cognitive distortions and problematic substance use. YAHOP shows to be responsive and culturally sensitive, as the participants with a migration background show a significant decrease in general risk of recidivism. No moderator analysis was conducted due to an overall low level of program integrity. After improving program integrity, full-scale quantitative research is needed as YAHOP has the potential as a promising desistance program for high-risk offenders, as in this study the 56 non-completers were also included.

No Matter Your Age, "It's Your Life, It's Your Choice": Compulsory Persuasion and Informal Rehabilitative Support in Youth and Adult Intensive Supervision Programs.

Although existing literature identifies that public protection and risk reduction are the primary goals of intensive supervision programs (ISP), little is known about how or whether rehabilitation of high-risk offenders is prioritized outside of enforcing court-mandated conditions. Using qualitative semi-structured interviews and focus groups within two Canadian metropolitan ISPs, our study explores how rehabilitative support is offered to youth and adult high-risk offenders in the absence of formal conditions. Using the framework of late-modern rehabilitation and compulsory persuasion, we draw on themes of offender responsibilization and coercion to interrogate the provision of informal rehabilitative support. Our findings indicate that officers negotiate "voluntary agreements" with select high-risk offenders, which hierarchicalizes them into two groups: those worthy of informal support and those who "choose" not to want to rehabilitate. We also find that youth and adults are treated similarly despite substantive differences between the types of crimes committed.

The Link Between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Mental Health in Offenders: A Systematic Review

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and mental health issues are highly prevalent in the history of adult offenders, as they affect an individual’s social, psychological, and emotional development and, consequently, their welfare and role in society. The present study explores the relationship between ACEs and mental health in adult offenders. B-on, Psycnet, Pubmed, Scielo, Scopus, and Web of Science databases were systematically searched and selected according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Twelve articles were included in the final sample, exploring the relationship between ACEs and mental health in adult inmates. ACEs impact criminal conduct and mental health. The study of those variables is essential to contribute to implementing intervention strategies and crime prevention.

Examining the Relationship Between Prison Sexual Misconduct and Sexual Recidivism among Federal Sex Offenders

This study examines how sex offenders who engage in prison sexual misconduct (PSM) compare to other sex offenders who do not offend in prison in terms of sexual, violent, and nonviolent rearrest rates upon their release. Differences in the connection between PSM and recidivism between two groups were also examined: offenders with a history of adult victims (ASO) and offenders with a history of child victims (CSO). The findings reveal that for the sample as a whole, PSM is associated with overall recidivism, but it is not associated specifically with sexual, violent, or nonviolent offending. For ASO, PSM was significantly associated with sexual rearrest but not violent rearrest, while for CSO, PSM was significantly associated with violent rearrest but not sexual rearrest. Implications of these findings and directions for future research are discussed.

A literature review of outcome and treatment options after acquired brain injury: Suggestions for adult offenders using knowledge from the general population.

Acquired brain injury (ABI) is a major health problem, often with negative effects on behaviour and mental health as well as cognition. Prevalence of ABI is exceptionally high among offenders and increases their re-offending risk. Information on risk factors for ABI and its outcomes among offenders that could guide effective treatment for them is, nevertheless, scarce and dispersed. However, there is a more substantial literature about the general population that could inform work with brain-injured offenders, especially when selecting for samples or subgroups with similar relevant characteristics, such as lower socio-economic status (SES), pre-injury lower tested intelligence score (<85) and pre-injury mental health problems. To explore brain injury data from non-offender samples of otherwise similar socio-economic and mental health and ability characteristics to offenders then, first, to describe their untreated outcomes and, secondly, outcomes after frequently used interventions in these circumstances, noting factors associated with their effectiveness. Three databases were systematically searched for the years 2010-2022; first, using terms for brain injury or damage and cognitive (dys)function, mental health or quality of life. Second, in a separate search, we used these terms and terms for interventions and rehabilitation. In the second review, studies were selected for clear, distinguishable data on age, sex, SES and lifestyle factors to facilitate inferences for offenders. A narrative analytical approach was adopted for both reviews. Samples with characteristics that are typical in offender groups, including lower SES, lower pre-injury intelligence quotient (<85), prior cognitive impairments and prior mental health problems, had poorer cognitive and behavioural outcomes following ABI than those without such additional problems, together with lower treatment adherence. With respect to treatment, adequate motivation and self-awareness were associated with better cognitive and behavioural outcomes than when these were low or absent, regardless of the outcome measured. More complex pre-injury mental health problems and social disadvantages typical of offenders are associated with poorer post-brain injury recovery. This paper adds to practical knowledge by bringing together work that follows specific outcome trajectories. Overall, succesful ABI-interventions in the general population that aim at pre-injury difficulties comparable to those seen among offenders, show that personalising injury-specific treatments and taking account of these difficulties, maximised positive outcomes.