Adult Milestones Research Articles

Taking John Schulenberg's "long view" on successful transitions to adulthood: Associations with adult substance use.

Can positive transitions into young adulthood at age 25 prevent problematic substance use at age 31, even in the context of childhood adverse family environments, conduct problems, and adolescent substance use? We lean on John Schulenberg's developmental framework to examine this question, focusing on the potential young adult milestones of high school and college graduation, employment, residential independence, romantic partnership, and parenthood. Data came from a prospective-longitudinal multi-method study with N = 1199 participants who were first assessed at age 5 years old and followed to age 31. An accumulation of positive transitions in young adulthood (age 25) was associated with lower likelihood of age 31 problematic cannabis use. The protective effect for problematic cannabis use remained even when adjusting for childhood adverse family environments and was primarily driven by successful college graduation and/or home ownership. The accumulation of positive transitions protected individuals at modest to somewhat elevated risk due to childhood adverse family environments from experiencing age 31 cannabis use problems. However, for other individuals with very high numbers of conduct problems, or with high levels of adolescent substance use, the protective effects of accumulated positive transitions to young adulthood were less strong or nonexistent. Moreover, individuals who completed college or obtained full-time employment by 25 were more likely to report problematic age 31 alcohol use. These findings highlight the central tenets of John Schulenberg's developmental framework, including the examination of ontogenetic continuity and discontinuity, the interplay of developmentally distal and proximal effects, and the identification of developmental protective factors that may sway people toward or away from substance use.

The diverse roles of insulin signaling in insect behavior.

In insects and other animals, nutrition-mediated behaviors are modulated by communication between the brain and peripheral systems, a process that relies heavily on the insulin/insulin-like growth factor signaling pathway (IIS). Previous studies have focused on the mechanistic and physiological functions of insulin-like peptides (ILPs) in critical developmental and adult milestones like pupation or vitellogenesis. Less work has detailed the mechanisms connecting ILPs to adult nutrient-mediated behaviors related to survival and reproductive success. Here we briefly review the range of behaviors linked to IIS in insects, from conserved regulation of feeding behavior to evolutionarily derived polyphenisms. Where possible, we incorporate information from Drosophila melanogaster and other model species to describe molecular and neural mechanisms that connect nutritional status to behavioral expression via IIS. We identify knowledge gaps which include the diverse functional roles of peripheral ILPs, how ILPs modulate neural function and behavior across the lifespan, and the lack of detailed mechanistic research in a broad range of taxa. Addressing these gaps would enable a better understanding of the evolution of this conserved and widely deployed tool kit pathway.

Young people with intellectual disability speak out about life after school: “I want to do more in life than just…be a disability person”

ABSTRACT Background: The transition from school to adult life is challenging for young people with intellectual disability. The study aimed to explore how young people with intellectual disability themselves experience the transition from school to adult life. Methods: A co-designed, qualitative study. Thematic data analysis of qualitative survey responses, semi-structured interviews, and focus groups with 27 young people with intellectual disability in three Australian states. Results: Participants found transition planning at school inconsistent or lacking and felt excluded from decision-making about their lives. Accessing meaningful services, training, and employment beyond volunteering was challenging and enduring, leaving participants in perpetual state of transition, feeling lost, and missing out of post-school adult milestones. Conclusions: Policy, system, and service gaps must be addressed with a nationally consistent and accountable approach that truly supports choice and control for young people with intellectual disability in transitioning from school into meaningful adult lives.

Social effects of HIV disclosure, an ongoing challenge in young adults living with perinatal HIV: a qualitative study.

Young adults with perinatal HIV (YAPHIV) have survived the long journey of life while living with HIV since early childhood. We explore the HIV disclosure experience and its social effects from their perspectives. The qualitative study was conducted from June to November 2022 in Chiang Mai, Thailand. Data were collected through individual in-depth semi-structured interviews with 20 YAPHIV at the median age of 25 years. Content analysis was used to identify themes from the interview transcripts. Most participants learned their HIV status from their parents, caregivers, healthcare providers, or other people in community during their childhood. Some were disclosed later in adolescent years. HIV disclosure to others was associated with various experiences in different stages of life. While some YAPHIV decided not to disclose their HIV status to anyone, it also had social effects. Three major themes were identified: (1) positive social effects of HIV disclosure (perceived social acceptance, perceived social support); (2) negative social effects of HIV disclosure (effects on child rearing, schooling, and family relationship); and (3) HIV non-disclosure (anticipated stigma, negative effects on the quality of employment, and relationships). An emerging theme was a need for peer support mentioned by several YAPHIV as they would like to discuss with somebody and share their feelings while living with HIV. HIV disclosure remains challenging for YAPHIV while growing up and moving toward adult milestones. Better understanding their situations and perspectives would allow healthcare providers to provide them with updated HIV knowledge, coping skills, and psychosocial support.

Neurocognitive outcomes in adult survivors of neuroblastoma: A report from the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study.

Despite survival improvements, there is a paucity of data on neurocognitive outcomes in neuroblastoma survivors. This study addresses this literature gap. Neurocognitive impairments in survivors were compared to sibling controls from the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study (CCSS) using the CCSS Neurocognitive Questionnaire. Impaired emotional regulation, organization, task efficiency, and memory defined as scores ≥90th percentile of sibling norms. Modified Poisson regression models evaluated associations with treatment exposures, era of diagnosis, and chronic conditions. Analyses were stratified by age at diagnosis (≤1 and>1year) as proxy for lower versus higher risk disease. Survivors (N=837; median [range] age, 25 [17-58] years, age diagnosed, 1 [0-21] years) were compared to sibling controls (N=728; age, 32 [16-43] years). Survivors had higher risk of impaired task efficiency (≤1year relative risk [RR], 1.48; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.08-2.03; >1year RR, 1.58; 95% CI, 1.22-2.06) and emotional regulation (≤1year RR, 1.51; 95% CI, 1.07-2.12; >1year RR,1.44; 95% CI, 1.06-1.95). Impaired task efficiency associated with platinum exposure (≤1year RR, 1.74; 95% CI, 1.01-2.97), hearing loss (≤1year RR,1.95; 95% CI,1.26-3.00; >1year RR,1.56; 95% CI,1.09-2.24), cardiovascular (≤1year RR,1.83; 95% CI,1.15-2.89; >1year RR,1.74; 95% CI,1.12-2.69), neurologic (≤1year RR,2.00; 95% CI,1.32-3.03; >1year RR,2.29; 95% CI,1.64-3.21), and respiratory (>1year RR,2.35; 95% CI,1.60-3.45) conditions. Survivors ≤1year; female sex (RR,1.54; 95% CI,1.02-2.33), cardiovascular (RR,1.71; 95% CI,1.08-2.70) and respiratory (RR,1.99; 95% CI,1.14-3.49) conditions associated impaired emotional regulation. Survivors were less likely to be employed full-time (p<.0001), graduate college (p=.035), and live independently (p<.0001). Neuroblastoma survivors report neurocognitive impairment impacting adult milestones. Identified health conditions and treatment exposures can be targeted to improve outcomes. Survival rates continue to improve in patients with neuroblastoma. There is a lack of information regarding neurocognitive outcomes in neuroblastoma survivors; most studies examined survivors of leukemia or brain tumors. In this study, 837 adult survivors of childhood neuroblastoma were compared to siblings from the Childhood Cancer Survivorship Study. Survivors had a 50% higher risk of impairment with attention/processing speed (task efficiency) and emotional reactivity/frustration tolerance (emotional regulation). Survivors were less likely to reach adult milestones such as living independently. Survivors with chronic health conditions are at a higher risk of impairment. Early identification and aggressive management of chronic conditions may help mitigate the level of impairment.

Ageing with HIV: a longitudinal study of markers of resilience in young adults with perinatal exposure to HIV, with or without perinatally acquired HIV.

IntroductionMedical challenges, including perinatally acquired HIV (PHIV), can be considered adversity with the potential to compromise individuals’ ability to meet societal expectations across the lifespan. Studies suggest that resilience, defined as positive adaptation in the context of adversity, helps individuals overcome challenges and improve their quality of life. Few longitudinal studies have examined resilience in young adults with perinatally acquired HIV (YAPHIV) or perinatal HIV exposure, uninfected (YAPHEU). We examined three young adult milestones, which can affect the life‐long quality of life, as markers of resilience: high school graduation, postsecondary education and current employment.MethodsAnalyses included YAPHIV and YAPHEU, ages 19–27 years, followed in longitudinal cohort studies: Pediatric HIV/AIDS Cohort Study Adolescent Master Protocol (AMP) (7–17 years) and AMP Up (≥18 years). Factors known to influence the attainment of milestones (outcomes) were examined: executive function, cognitive efficiency (working memory and processing speed), behavioural/social‐emotional functioning, parent/caregiver mental/physical health and cumulative risk. HIV disease markers for YAPHIV were examined. The most recent AMP assessment was used for each factor; outcomes were measured at AMP Up 1‐year follow‐up. Separate robust Poisson regression models were used to assess associations of each factor with each outcome; PHIV status was explored as an effect modifier of each association.ResultsParticipants (N = 315; YAPHIV = 228): 58% female, 67% Black and 27% Hispanic. Compared to YAPHEU, YAPHIV were older and from families with higher median income and fewer symptoms of parent/caregiver mental health/substance use disorders. Proportions of YAPHIV and YAPHEU, respectively, who achieved each milestone were comparable: 82% versus 78% for high school graduation (p = 0.49), 45% versus 51% for postsecondary education (p = 0.35) and 48% versus 54% for current employment (p = 0.32). Higher cognitive efficiency was positively associated with postsecondary education and current employment. Higher executive function, age‐appropriate behavioural/social‐emotional functioning and lower cumulative risk were associated with academic milestones. Among YAPHIV, positive associations were: higher current CD4 with postsecondary education and lower nadir CD4 with current employment. PHIV status did not modify any association.ConclusionsYAPHIV and YAPHEU demonstrated resilience, attaining at least one young adult milestone. Cognitive, behavioural and social resources to support resilience in childhood and adolescence may provide the foundation for continued achievement throughout adulthood.

Parenting young adults across social class: A review and synthesis

AbstractResearch on parental involvement has traditionally focused on social class differences in parenting behavior throughout early childhood and K‐12 schooling. Yet there is mounting evidence that similar class divides persist as children exit high school and progress through young adulthood. This review examines parents' roles in young adults' lives, focusing on class differences in non‐financial forms of involvement. These processes are often hidden from public view and have received less attention in prior reviews. Beginning with the transition out of high school, I discuss current research on parents' roles in relation to five traditional young adult milestones: finishing school, finding a job, leaving the family home, getting married, and becoming a parent (Furstenberg, 2010). The findings underscore that understanding the transition to adulthood requires understanding young adults' relationships with parents.

Gendered access to digital capital and mobile phone ownership among young people in Rakai, Uganda

This article examines how gendered access to digital capital—in the form of the social and economic resources needed to own and use a mobile phone—is connected to key adult milestones, such as securing employment and engaging in romantic relationships. Descriptive statistical analysis of 11,030 young people aged 15–24 in Rakai, Uganda indicated that men were more likely to own mobile phones than women. Analysis of qualitative interviews with young people (N = 31) and ethnographic participant observations among young people (N = 24) add nuance and depth to the observed gender difference. We go beyond a ‘categorical’ approach to gender (i.e. comparing rates between men and women) to examine how access to digital capital is gendered both for men and for women. Mobile phone ownership both reproduces and destabilises gendered social organisation in ways that have implications for economic opportunities, social connections, HIV risk and overall health and well-being. Young men had greater access to the benefits of mobile phone ownership, whereas young women's access to those benefits was impeded by covert and overt gendered mechanisms of control that limited access to digital capital. Findings suggest that mhealth initiatives, increasingly deployed to reach under-resourced populations, must take into account gendered access to digital capital.

Burden of Morbidity after Allogeneic Blood or Marrow Transplantation for Inborn Errors of Metabolism: A BMT Survivor Study Report

Survival after blood or marrow transplantation (BMT) for inborn errors of metabolism (IEM) is excellent; however, the burden of morbidity in long-term survivors of BMT for IEM remains understudied. This study examined the risk of chronic health conditions (CHC) in ≥2-year survivors of allogeneic BMT for IEM performed between 1974 and 2014 using the BMT Survivor Study. In this retrospective cohort study, participants (or their parents; n=154) reported demographic data and CHCs (graded using Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events version 5), and transplantation characteristics were obtained from institutional databases. Unaffected siblings (n=494) served as a comparison group. Logistic regression was used to estimated the odds of severe/life-threatening CHCs compared with siblings. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to estimate factors associated with severe/life-threatening/fatal CHCs in survivors of BMT for IEM. Survivors of allogeneic BMT for IEM (leukodystrophies, 43.5%; mucopolysaccharidoses, 41.0%) were at 12.5-fold higher odds of severe/life-threatening CHCs (95% confidence interval [CI], 5.4 to 28.9) compared with their siblings. The mean 10-year post-BMT cumulative incidence of grade 3-5 CHCs was 47.5 ± 4.0%. Reduced-intensity conditioning (RIC) was associated with a 2.7-fold higher risk (95% CI, 1.2 to 6.2; P=.02) of any grade 3-5 CHC, a 6.7-fold higher risk of grade 3-5 cardiopulmonary conditions (95% CI, 1.3 to 35.4), and a 3.0-fold higher risk of severe hearing/vision deficits (95% CI, 1.4 to 6.6). Older (age >26 years) BMT survivors were significantly less likely to graduate from college (odds ratio [OR], 0.3; 95% CI, 0.1 to 0.7) or marry (OR, 0.01; 95% CI, 0.004 to 0.07) compared with their siblings. Survivors of BMT for IEM carry a significant burden of morbidities, which affects their ability to attain adult milestones. Efforts to reduce chronic health conditions in this population are needed.

Reaching Adulthood: Persistent Beliefs about the Importance and Timing of Adult Milestones

Since 2000, transition to adulthood behaviors changed across gender and social class. Yet it is unclear whether these changes reflect a corresponding shift in beliefs. In particular, widening inequality and changes to higher education may differentially alter the opportunities available to young adults across gender and socioeconomic status, potentially changing attitudes about entering adulthood. Using the General Social Survey’s 2002 and 2012 waves, this paper explores beliefs about the importance and timing of six adult milestones, completing education, becoming financially independent, working full-time, living independently, getting married, and having children, across age, gender, and social class. We find that similarities in beliefs across gender and age groups persisted. In contrast, even though Americans from different social class backgrounds report similar beliefs about milestone importance, we continue to find social class differences in timing beliefs. Our findings highlight the continued need for institutional supports for disadvantaged youth moving towards adulthood.

Smoothing Rough Transitions: the Extensive Role of Family Assistance in Pathways into Homeownership

Research addressing intergenerational financial assistance is currently uncovering a key space in which the familial transmission of advantage and disadvantage plays out. However, there is a gap between studies addressing the relationship between intergenerational assistance and outcomes in areas such as education and employment, and those addressing intergenerational assistance with entry into homeownership. The former have not addressed the impact of assistance on housing outcomes in any depth, while the latter have focused predominantly on single instances of support. As a result, little is known about the relationship between intergenerational support received over the so-called ‘transition’ to adulthood and support received specifically to aid entry into homeownership. This article presents data from ‘housing pathway’ interviews conducted with 33 young adult homeowners in Australia and in so doing begins to uncover the complex relationship between financial assistance with homeownership and previous instances of financial assistance. Drawing on the finding that homeownership appeared, in some cases, to be facilitated by seemingly unrelated forms of assistance, the paper argues for a revised conceptualisation of the relationship between independence and dependence in the transition to adulthood. Specifically, rather than understanding the achievement of adult milestones as symbolic of growing independence, it is argued that these milestones are, in some cases, achieved only through dependence on protracted forms of support. This claim challenges a dichotomous notion of dependence and independence by instead putting forward the concept of independence through dependence.

Education and Employment Transitions among Young Adults with Disabilities: Comparisons by Disability Status, Type and Severity

ABSTRACT It is well established that successful transitions into adulthood vary greatly by numerous factors (e.g., race, gender); yet, understanding of ways that disability-related factors shape transitions into adulthood are less clear. While individuals with disabilities, generally, often fall short of their non-disabled peers in achieving many early adult milestones, fuller conceptualisations that recognise the diversity among individuals with disabilities are warranted. Informed by recent findings suggesting the variability of experiences of young adults with disabilities by disability type and severity, as well as disability frameworks that focus on ‘normative’ population outcomes as proxies of activities and participation among individuals with and without disabilities, this study uses data from two waves of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to describe and compare the success of young people by disability status, type, and severity as they transition from high school, enrol in college, or gain employment. Findings derived from logistic regression models suggest consistent disadvantages for individuals with cognitive disabilities relative to peers with physical disabilities as well as peers without disabilities across important early adult transitions. Policy and practice implications to address these inequalities are discussed.

Longitudinal change in parent postsecondary expectations for youth with disabilities

Purpose Expectations held by parents of youth with disabilities contribute to decision making and planning for adulthood. This study investigated longitudinal stability of parent expectations about the transition to adulthood for youth with disabilities (i.e., likelihood of obtaining postsecondary education, living independently, becoming financially self-sufficient) and how the stability of parent expectations was related to adult outcomes. Materials and methods Participants were parents of 3640 youth who participated in the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2) waves 1 and 2 and had available data related to parent expectations. Results Parent expectations were moderately correlated across waves; however, over one-third of parents changed their expectations across waves, including directional shifts (e.g., changing from thinking they probably will achieve the outcome to probably will not achieve it). Directional shifts in parent expectations between waves 1 and 2 significantly predicted young adult outcomes at wave 5. The children of parents who demonstrated uncertainty, as indicated by directional expectation shifts, were less likely live independently as young adults. Family involvement in the transition process is critical and should continue to be advocated for in both policy and practice. Improved supports may be warranted for families who experience uncertainty. Implications for rehabilitation Practitioners should recognize that parents of youth with disabilities have expectations for their child’s transition to adulthood that may change over time and are influenced by factors such as youth age, disability classification, gender, and socioeconomic status. The ways parents’ expectations change over time may have lasting implications for their child; specifically, we identified that youth of parents who change their expectations negatively (by shifting to expect less independence) are less likely to attain certain adult milestones. Parents experiencing uncertainty about their youths’ postsecondary potential may require additional support and resources to understand their child’s strengths and challenges, consider available services, and ultimately to promote more independent outcomes for the youth.

Psychiatric disorders and young adult milestones in HIV-exposed, uninfected youth

ABSTRACTThe global population of perinatally HIV-exposed but uninfected (HEU) children is growing, with relatively little known about their psychosocial outcomes, particularly across adolescence and young adulthood. Using data from a longitudinal cohort study of HEU youth in New York City (N = 134), we examine rates of substance use disorders (SUD) and non-SUD psychiatric disorders (mood, anxiety, and behavioral) at five time-points during adolescence and young adulthood, as well as associated demographic and environmental factors and the association of ever having a disorder with young adult developmental milestones. HEU participants in this study experienced high rates of psychiatric disorders, particularly SUD in young adulthood. During the entire study period (2003–2018), over one third were diagnosed at least once with a SUD, and 69% were diagnosed with a non-SUD psychiatric disorder. Older age and female gender were associated with higher rates of non-SUD diagnoses. A history of meeting criteria for any disorder at any time point was associated with reduced odds in young adulthood of working or being in school and increased odds of reporting incarceration, homelessness, and recent condomless sex. There is an urgent need to develop systems to follow HEU youth and provide services to intervene and treat psychiatric disorders, including substance use.

Lifetime Achievement and Quality of Life in Adult Survivors of Pediatric Heart Transplant

Purpose As survival in pediatric heart transplant (HTx) improves, an increasing proportion of children receiving HTx are entering adulthood. Many quality of life (QOL) studies have looked at adult HTx patients, but only a few have looked at the population who received a HTx as a child. It is important to examine how this chronic illness affects children's development and eventual transition to adulthood, so that we may improve counseling of future patients. Methods Patients who received a HTx with the pediatric program at Columbia University Medical Center from 1984 through August 1, 2007, who are now > 18 years old and have survived over 10 years since HTx were asked to complete 2 surveys: (1) CHONY Pediatric Heart Transplant Life Achievement Survey, which examines marital and employment status, education level, personal income, health insurance status, and living environment, and (2) Quality of Life Index (QLI) by Ferrans and Powers, which scores life satisfaction from 0 (least satisfied) to 1 (most satisfied) as an overall score, and in 4 distinct domains (health/function, socioeconomic, psych/spiritual, and family). Results The Life Achievement Survey was completed by 54 patients (median age 8 years at transplant and 25 years at time of survey, 44% female, 26% transplanted for congenital heart disease). Fifteen patients have either been married (1 divorced) or part of an unmarried couple, and 7 have children (6 biological including 1 female). Thirty-seven patients are either employed or a student, and 16 earn over $25,000 annually. Almost a third of patients (n=16) live independently, while 5 are homeowners. Fifty patients completed the QLI and reported a mean overall QLI 0.76±0.14. The scores in the health/function, socioeconomic, psych/spiritual, and family domains were 0.77, 0.74, 0.74, and 0.8, respectively. Conclusion Our cohort of adult survivors of pediatric HTx have achieved many standard adult milestones such as receiving an education, maintaining relationships, being employed, and living independently. Additionally, they report a suitable QOL, especially in the health/function and family domains.

Behavioral Health and Adult Milestones in Young Adults With Perinatal HIV Infection or Exposure.

Young adults living with perinatally acquired HIV infection (PHIVYAs) are at risk for poor biomedical and behavioral health outcomes. Few studies offer a comprehensive overview of the functioning of this population in young adulthood and the role of HIV. Data come from the Child and Adolescent Self-Awareness and Health Study, a longitudinal behavioral health cohort study of PHIVYAs and perinatally HIV-exposed but uninfected young adults (PHEUYAs) who are compared on psychiatric and neurocognitive functioning, sexual and substance use behaviors, health and reproductive outcomes, and young adult milestones. Overall, 27% of participants met criteria for a psychiatric disorder, including mood (11%), anxiety (22%), and substance use (28%), with no HIV status differences. PHIVYAs performed worse on 2 neurocognitive tests. There were no HIV status differences in condomless sex (41%) or pregnancies (41% women; 38% men). Both groups exhibited similar adult milestones: 67% graduated high school or an equivalent, 19% were in college, and 42% were employed. However, 38% were neither in school or working, 12% reported incarceration, and 16% were ever homeless. Among PHIVYAs, 36% were viremic (>200 copies per mL), and 15% were severely immunocompromised (CD4+ cell count <100 cells per mm3). Many PHIVYAs achieve adult milestones related to school, employment, sexual relationships, and starting families. However, they and PHEUYAs have high rates of psychiatric and substance use disorders and behavioral risks, which can jeopardize long-term health and adult functioning, particularly in the context of HIV. These findings underscore an urgent need to escalate interventions.

CREDENTIALING DECISIONS AND CRIMINAL RECORDS: A NARRATIVE APPROACH*

AbstractDecision makers such as employers and state occupational licensing officials are often encouraged or required to incorporate evidence of rehabilitation into hiring decisions when applicants have criminal records. Current policy movements at the local, state, and federal levels may increase the use of such individualized assessments. Yet little is known about which types of information these decision makers use, how they evaluate evidence, and how they ultimately make determinations. We examine a sample of 50 unarmed security guard licensing decisions in New York State using content analysis. We find that administrative law judges rely on a narrative framework to document whether applicants currently have a prosocial identity and merit licensure. Judges typically describe one of two prosocial identity narratives for successful applicants: The applicant demonstrates achieving meaningful change, or his or her criminal record represents an aberration. Two factors seem vital to these assessments: applicants’ postconviction trustworthiness, as demonstrated through good conduct or inferred through positive appraisals, and credible testimony. In narrative explanations, personal responsibility and adult milestones are often discussed, reflecting a judicial nod to the notion of a “transition to adulthood.” The results hold implications for scholars and policy makers examining employment barriers, stigma remediation, and collateral sanctions for individuals with criminal records.

A life course perspective on the travel of Australian millennials

Recent research suggests that the millennial generation may be inclined to more sustainable travel habits than previous generations, reflected in lower rates of driver licensing in many countries and greater use of sustainable modes in others. However, it is still unknown whether millennials will continue to use sustainable transport modes as they age, or whether their travel patterns will revert to the car dependence displayed by previous generations. This research addresses this overlooked area in the travel behaviour research through an in-depth, qualitative prospective exploration of the interactions between life course and mobility of millennials in three Australian cities (Sydney, Melbourne and Canberra). Drawing from life-course transition research, fifty-five in-depth interviews found that Australian millennial life courses could be categorised into three typologies: (a) traditional, (b) delayed-traditional and (c) non-traditional/uncertain. In addition, millennial mobility was categorised into four typologies: (a) choice multi-modals, (b) captive multi-modals, (c) choice drivers and (d) captive drivers. Many millennials preferred living in inner urban areas, were multi-modal and somewhat ‘mode-agnostic,’ open to using whatever travel mode best suited their needs; very few showed a strong preference for cars. However, the research does suggest that as millennials approach adult milestones such as having children, the difficulty in finding suitable housing near transit may push some of them into neighbourhoods where sustainable transport is no longer a practical option. Policy interventions that support a sustainable lifestyle are suggested and research directions are discussed.

Trajectories of Violent Behavior Among Females and Males.

Both the psychological and criminological fields have long hypothesized the mechanisms that influence desistance from violent offending, but few studies have focused on violent females. This study identifies patterns of violent behavior across 7years among 172 females and 172 matched males ages 15-24, testing if heterogeneity in violent offending is linked to (a) developmental change in impulse control and (b) attainment of adult milestones. Fewer females persist in violence (25%) than males (46%); 19% of males increase in violent behavior. Females who develop impulse control and are employed are more likely to desist from violence. Violent offending is unrelated to other adult milestones. Developmental increases in impulse control may trigger desistance, while employment may maintain desistance from violence.

Pathways to Homelessness among Older Homeless Adults: Results from the HOPE HOME Study.

Little is known about pathways to homelessness among older adults. We identified life course experiences associated with earlier versus later onset of homelessness in older homeless adults and examined current health and functional status by age at first homelessness. We interviewed 350 homeless adults, aged 50 and older, recruited via population-based sampling. Participants reported age at first episode of adult homelessness and their life experiences during 3 time periods: childhood (<18 years), young adulthood (ages 18–25), and middle adulthood (ages 26–49). We used a structured modeling approach to identify experiences associated with first adult homelessness before age 50 versus at age 50 or older. Participants reported current health and functional status, including recent mental health and substance use problems. Older homeless adults who first became homeless before 50 had more adverse life experiences (i.e., mental health and substance use problems, imprisonment) and lower attainment of adult milestones (i.e., marriage, full-time employment) compared to individuals with later onset. After multivariable adjustment, adverse experiences were independently associated with experiencing a first episode of homelessness before age 50. Individuals who first became homeless before age 50 had higher prevalence of recent mental health and substance use problems and more difficulty performing instrumental activities of daily living. Life course experiences and current vulnerabilities of older homeless adults with first homelessness before age 50 differed from those with later onset of homelessness. Prevention and service interventions should be adapted to meet different needs.