Adult Hind Research Articles

DEVELOPMENTAL PARAMETERS OF TRILOCHAVARIANS (LEPIDOPTERA: BOMBYCIDAE); A PEST OF WEEPING FIG, FICUSBENJAMINA IN PAKISTAN

The developmental parameters of Trilochavarianswere studied on weeping fig, Ficusbenjamina at 26°C ± 1.0 temperature and 65±5% relative humidity. The study showed that female laid 160-270 eggs in 2-6 layers on the dorsal side of the leaves. Some unmated female also laid 15-183 eggs in groups which never developed into larvae. 24 hours prior to hatching, the eggs turned black. Egg incubation period was 3.46±1.22 days on F. benjamina. The high fecundity increased the survival rate of T. varians.There were five larval instars which recorded in this study period. Last two instars caused more damage due to resemblance to hosts parts such as bark. There was a short, fleshy horn on the ninth abdominal segment. The developmental time of first, second, third, fourth and fifth larval instars was 2.44±0.82, 3.56±0.53, 3.72±0.26, 4.54±0.79 and 6.20±0.78 days, respectively. Boat shaped and yellow silken pupation was usually observed. The male and female mean longevity was 6.0 ± 1.171 and 11.4 ± 1.70 days. The dorsal side of the female forewings had pale reddish brown lines. The thorax, head, and abdomen of the female had darker reddish brown coloring than those of the male. Adult hind wings had reddish brown outer edges and were grayish in color. The average lifespan for male and female was 6.23±2.09 and 10.01±0.99 days, respectively. Thecurrent paper will lead to proper management practices for this pest

Phenotypic Plasticity of the Thermal Reaction Norms for Development in the Multicolored Asian Lady Beetle, Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) (Coleoptera, Coccinellidae)

Phenotypic plasticity of insect thermal reaction norms (TRNs) (the lower thermal threshold, coefficient of thermal sensitivity, and sum of degree-days) ensures precise adjustment of the seasonal cycle to local environments by changing the pattern of temperature-dependence of developmental rate. In different geographic populations the plasticity of TRNs can be manifested in different ways. We investigated the photoperiodic and diet-induced plasticity of TRNs, body mass and structural size (hind femur length) of the multicolored Asian ladybird, Harmonia axyridis, from native (Irkutsk) and invasive (Sochi) laboratory populations. Each population was tested in 16 experimental treatments that represented combinations of 4 temperatures (17, 20, 24, and 28°C), 2 photoperiods (10 and 16 h of light per day), and 2 larval diets (frozen eggs of the grain moth Sitotroga cerealella and larvae and adults of the green peach aphid Myzus persicae). The lady beetle eggs developed at a temperature of 20°C; first instar larvae were distributed among experimental treatments. We have demonstrated that under both photoperiodic regimes larval feeding on a low-quality diet (grain moth eggs) resulted in a disproportional (more strongly manifested at a low temperature) retardation of preimaginal development of individuals from both populations. The lower temperature thresholds for preimaginal development were also greater on the inferior diet. When fed on grain moth eggs, larvae from the Irkutsk population showed weaker temperature-sensitivity of development, whereas in the Sochi population the slope of the TRN did not differ between the two diets. In contrast, H. axyridis from Irkutsk showed practically no photoperiodic plasticity of TRN, whereas those from Sochi were sensitive to photoperiod on both diets. Under short-day conditions, the lower temperature threshold in the latter population was smaller and temperature-sensitivity was weaker so that at the temperatures of 17 and 20°C, development under short-day conditions was faster than that under long-day conditions, whereas at 28°C, on the contrary, it was slightly slower. In both studied populations the thermal plasticity of adult body mass and hind femur length was manifested in different ways and to varying degrees, depending on the larval photoperiodic conditions and diet. Adult body mass could decrease or increase with larval developmental temperature or show no change. Despite being maintained in the laboratory for many generations, the H. axyridis populations from Sochi and Irkutsk have retained differences in physiological responses to photoperiodic conditions and larval diet.

短时高温胁迫对斑痣悬茧蜂发育指标的影响

PDF HTML阅读 XML下载 导出引用 引用提醒 短时高温胁迫对斑痣悬茧蜂发育指标的影响 DOI: 10.5846/stxb201511142311 作者: 作者单位: 南京农业大学植物保护学院,南京农业大学植物保护学院,南京农业大学植物保护学院 作者简介: 通讯作者: 中图分类号: 基金项目: 国家自然科学基金项目（31570389）；国家科技支撑计划项目（2012BAC19B01）；国家公益性行业（农业）科研专项（200903003，201103002） Effects of short-term heat stress on developmental parameters of Meteorus pulchricornis (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) Author: Affiliation: Plant Protection College,Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Crop Diseases and Pests,Ministry of Education,Nanjing Agricultural University,Plant Protection College,Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Crop Diseases and Pests,Ministry of Education,Nanjing Agricultural University,Plant Protection College,Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Crop Diseases and Pests,Ministry of Education,Nanjing Agricultural University Fund Project: 摘要 | 图/表 | 访问统计 | 参考文献 | 相似文献 | 引证文献 | 资源附件 | 文章评论 摘要:全球气候变化不仅包括平均气温上升，而且诸如热浪的极端天气事件出现的频率和程度也增大。寄生蜂虽在寄主体内完成生长发育，也会受到极端气温的影响。为探究短时高温对寄生性天敌斑痣悬茧蜂（Meteorus pulchricornis）幼虫发育表现的影响，以斜纹夜蛾（Spodoptera litura）幼虫为寄主，分别对1-6日龄子代蜂进行39℃、持续4h的高温胁迫处理，以发育全程进行适温（昼29℃、夜26℃）处理为对照，观察子代存活、发育历期、羽化和成虫寿命等发育指标。高温胁迫处理1日和5日龄子代蜂幼虫使幼虫存活率下降，与对照相比分别降低36.1%和28.6%；高温胁迫可延长子代蜂幼虫发育历期，与对照相比，高温处理2、3、5日和6日龄子代蜂幼虫使幼虫发育历期分别延长了5.0%，5.2%，7.0%和12.1%；高温胁迫处理5、6日龄子代蜂幼虫使羽化出的成虫体型（用后足胫节长度表示）比对照分别减小1.8%和2.6%。高温胁迫处理对子代蜂蛹发育历期、羽化率以及成虫寿命等均没有显著影响。研究结果说明，短时高温胁迫对斑痣悬茧蜂高龄幼虫的负面影响比对低龄幼虫大。 Abstract:Global warming causes an increase in the average temperature butalso the intensity and frequency of extreme climatic conditions, such as short heat notoly waves. Extreme temperatures can impact parasitoid growth and development in hosts. Therefore, to understand the effect of heat waves on parasitic natural enemies of insect pests, we made laboratory experiments to examine developmental performances of the offspring of the solitary endoparasitoid, Meteorus pulchricornis, using Spodoptera litura larvae as hosts. Offspring parasitoids in the hosts received the heat shock treatment by 39℃ for 4 hours at the age of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 days old after parasitism. Developmental survival, duration, adult body size, and longevity of offspring parasitoids were observed. Larval survival to pupa decreased in the host larvae that received the heat treatment at the age of 1 d and 5 d, by 36.1% and 28.6%, respectively, compared to controls. Larval duration was prolonged by 5.0%, 5.2%, 7.0%, and 12.1%, respectively, in the host larvae that received the heat treatment at the age of 2, 3, 5, and 6 d, respectively, compared to control. Adult hind tibia length decreased by 1.8% and 2.6%, respectively, in the hosts that received the heat treatment at the age of 5 and 6 d. Pupa-to-adult duration, pupa-to-adult emergence rate, and adult longevity were not influenced by the heat shock treatment. The results of the present study suggest that older larvae of M. pulchricornis were more vulnerable to heat waves than younger ones. 参考文献 相似文献 引证文献

YB-1 gene expression is kept constant during myocyte differentiation through replacement of different transcription factors and then falls gradually under the control of neural activity

We have previously reported that translation of acetylcholine receptor α-subunit (AChR α) mRNA in skeletal muscle cells is regulated by Y-box binding protein 1 (YB-1) in response to neural activity, and that in the postnatal mouse developmental changes in the amount of YB-1 mRNA are similar to those of AChR α mRNA, which is known to be regulated by myogenic transcription factors. Here, we examined transcriptional regulation of the YB-1 gene in mouse skeletal muscle and differentiating C2C12 myocytes. Although neither YB-1 nor AChR α was detected at either the mRNA or protein level in adult hind limb muscle, YB-1 expression was transiently activated in response to denervation of the sciatic nerve and completely paralleled that of AChR α, suggesting that these genes are regulated by the same transcription factors. However, during differentiation of C2C12 cells to myotubes, the level of YB-1 remained constant even though the level of AChR α increased markedly. Reporter gene, gel mobility shift and ChIP assays revealed that in the initial stage of myocyte differentiation, transcription of the YB-1 gene was regulated by E2F1 and Sp1, and was then gradually replaced under the control of both MyoD and myogenin through an E-box sequence in the proximal region of the YB-1 gene promoter. These results suggest that transcription factors for the YB-1 gene are exchanged during skeletal muscle cell differentiation, perhaps playing a role in translational control of mRNAs by YB-1 in both myotube formation and the response of skeletal muscle tissues to neural stimulation.

Comparative characterization of two intracellular Ca²⁺-release channels from the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum.

Ryanodine receptors (RyRs) and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (IP3Rs) are members of a family of tetrameric intracellular Ca2+-release channels (CRCs). While it is well known in mammals that RyRs and IP3Rs modulate multiple physiological processes, the roles of these two CRCs in the development and physiology of insects remain poorly understood. In this study, we cloned and functionally characterized RyR and IP3R cDNAs (named TcRyR and TcIP3R) from the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum. The composite TcRyR gene contains an ORF of 15,285 bp encoding a protein of 5,094 amino acid residues. The TcIP3R contains an 8,175 bp ORF encoding a protein of 2,724 amino acids. Expression analysis of TcRyR and TcIP3R revealed significant differences in mRNA expression levels among T. castaneum during different developmental stages. When the transcript levels of TcRyR were suppressed by RNA interference (RNAi), an abnormal folding of the adult hind wings was observed, while the RNAi-mediated knockdown of TcIP3R resulted in defective larval–pupal and pupal–adult metamorphosis. These results suggested that TcRyR is required for muscle excitation-contraction (E-C) coupling in T. castaneum, and that calcium release via IP3R might play an important role in regulating ecdysone synthesis and release during molting and metamorphosis in insects.

Biology and Fertility Life Table ofAganaspis pelleranoi(Hymenoptera: Figitidae) in Larvae ofAnastrepha fraterculusandCeratitis capitata(Diptera: Tephritidae)

AbstractAganaspis pelleranoi (Brèthes) (Hymenoptera: Figitidae) is an important fruit fly parasitoid native to the Neotropics. We investigated the biology and constructed a fertility life table for A. pelleranoi reared on larvae of Anastrepha fraterculus (Wiedemann) and Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae). Parasitoid development was investigated in larvae of the two fruit fly species by recording the duration of the egg-adult period, number of offspring, sex ratio, adult weight, adult hind tibia length, and male and female longevity, and constructing a fertility life table. Parasitoids reared on An. fraterculus larvae produced more offspring, had shorter egg-adult periods, greater proportion of females and longer survival, and higher percent emergence than parasitoids reared on C. capitata larvae. Moreover, A. pelleranoi individuals reared on An. fraterculus larvae were heavier and had longer hind tibia than those reared on C. capitata. Based on life table statistics, the time required to double the population (Td) was ≈3.4 times shorter for parasitoids reared on An. fraterculus larvae. Our results show that A. pelleranoi develops better on larvae from An. fraterculus than C. capitata, indicating that this species could be used for the mass production of this parasitoid intended for augmentative biological control of fruit flies.

Draft genome sequences of two Bifidobacterium sp. from the honey bee (Apis mellifera)

BackgroundWidely considered probiotic organisms, Bifidobacteria are common inhabitants of the alimentary tract of animals including insects. Bifidobacteria identified from the honey bee are found in larval guts and throughout the alimentary tract, but attain their greatest abundance in the adult hind gut. To further understand the role of Bifidobacteria in honey bees, we sequenced two strains of Bifidobacterium cultured from different alimentary tract environments and life stages.ResultsReflecting an oxygen-rich niche, both strains possessed catalase, peroxidase, superoxide-dismutase and respiratory chain enzymes indicative of oxidative metabolism. The strains show markedly different carbohydrate processing capabilities, with one possessing auxiliary and key enzymes of the Entner-Doudoroff pathway.ConclusionsAs a result of long term co-evolution, honey bee associated Bifidobacterium may harbor considerable strain diversity reflecting adaptation to a variety of different honey bee microenvironments and hive-mediated vertical transmission between generations.

Prevention of disuse osteoporosis in rats by Cordyceps sinensis extract

Cordyceps sinensis has been known as a traditional medicine in China, and C. sinensis plus strontium could prevent osteoporosis in ovariectomized rats. The present study shows that daily oral administration of C. sinensis at higher doses in adult hind limb suspension rats can prevent disuse-induced bone loss and deterioration of trabecular microarchitecture. Cordyceps sinensis induces estradiol production and prevents osteoporosis in ovariectomized rats. This study was to examine whether C. sinensis can prevent disuse-induced osteoporosis. Rats were randomly divided into six groups, and five groups were treated with hind limb suspension (HLS). One HLS group received alendronate (2.0mg/kg/day) orally, and to the three other HLS groups to each group, a different amount of C. sinensis (100, 300, and 500mg/kg/day) was orally administered for 8weeks before and after HLS. The remaining HLS group was set as a control without treatment. Each group consisted of 10 males and females. The body weights, biochemical parameters in serum and urine, bone mineral density (BMD), bone mineral content (BMC), mechanical testing, and bone microarchitecture were examined. Treatments with higher C. sinensis dosage (300 and 500mg/kg/day) or alendronate had a positive effect on body weights, mechanical strength, BMD, and BMC compared to the other HLS groups. C. sinensis decreased markers of bone turnover dose dependently and increased the osteocalcin levels in HLS rats. The result of micro-CT analysis from the L4 vertebra showed that C. sinensis (500mg/kg) significantly prevented the reduction of the bone volume fraction, connectivity density, trabeculae number, and thickness as well as improved the trabeculae separation and structure model index in HLS rats. The present study demonstrates that administration of C. sinensis at higher doses over an 8-week period can prevent the disuse osteoporosis in rats. It implies that C. sinensis might be an alternative therapy for prevention of disuse-induced osteoporosis also in humans.

Bone quality and growth characteristics of growth plates following limb transplantation between animals of different ages--results of an experimental study in male syngeneic rats.

IntroductionThe purpose of this study was to identify graft osteoporosis post transplantation by micro-CT analysis, and the growth potential of growth plates in the transplanted limb.MethodsTen juvenile to juvenile and five juvenile to adult hind limb transplants were performed in male syngeneic Lewis rats. Upper tibial bone density in isochronograft and heterochronograft limbs was measured by 3D micro-CT and compared with that of the opposite non-operated limbs.ResultsWe observed inferior bone quality (p < 0.05) in heterochronografts compared to isochronografts. After transplantation, isochronografts did not exhibit increases in tibial lengths compared to opposite juvenile non-operated tibias (p = 0.66) or heterochronograft tibias (p = 0.61). However, significant differences were observed between heterochrongraft tibial lengths when and opposite adult non operated tibial lengths (p < 0.001).ConclusionsAge dependent alterations affect bone quality, resulting in post transplantation osteoporosis in heterochronografts, but not isochronografts. However, the growth plates of transplanted limbs retain their properties of longitudinal growth and continue to grow at the same rate.

Nitrogen Fertilizer Management Effects on Soybean Nitrogen Components and Bean Leaf Beetle Populations

Bean leaf beetle [Cerotoma trifurcata (Förster)] (BLB) larvae consume soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] root nodules. This study was conducted to determine if different rates of N contained in starter fertilizer affect soybean shoot N components and BLB populations. The effects of starter N fertilizer treatments, consisting of 112 kg ha−1 of 24–16–11 (high‐N treatment), 7–16–11 (intermediate‐N), or 0–16–11 (no‐N) percent elemental N–P–K, on soybean shoot NO3–N and ureide‐N and on BLB larval and adult abundance and body size were investigated on a Barnes clay loam (fine‐loamy, mixed, superactive, frigid Calcic Hapludolls) near Brookings, SD. High‐N fertilizer increased shoot NO3–N from the beginning bloom to beginning pod stage and reduced ureide‐N at the full bloom, beginning pod, and beginning seed stages when compared to the intermediate and no N treatments. Fertilizer N treatments had no effects on larval numbers or body size. High‐N fertilizer resulted in greater adult emergence (1.73 insects m−1) than no N (0.42 insects m−1) in the hot and dry 2007 growing season, but not in the cooler and less‐dry 2006 growing season. Across both years, adult hind tibia lengths, but not head capsule widths, were greater in insects that emerged from high‐N (1.86 mm) and intermediate‐N (1.85 mm) compared to no‐N (1.79 mm) treatments. High‐N starter fertilizer, which altered shoot N components and increased BLB adult numbers and size under hot and dry conditions, may increase BLB populations and intensify the damage caused by this insect pest.

Effects of density, climate, and supplementary forage on body mass and pregnancy rates of female red deer in Spain

The influence of short- and long-term (cohort) effects of climate and density on the life-histories of ungulates in temperate regions may vary with latitude, habitat, and management practices, but the life-histories of ungulates in the Mediterranean region are less well known. This study examined the short- and long-term effects of rainfall and absolute density on hinds in two of the southernmost populations of red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus) in Europe. One population received supplementary forage. Unlike more northerly latitudes, where red deer hinds lose body mass in winter as a result of adverse weather, in the Spanish populations, hinds did not lose body mass. Hinds in the population that received supplementary forage were heavier and more likely to become pregnant than were the hinds in the unsupplemented population. The likelihood of pregnancy occurring was strongly influenced by hind body mass; the proportion of yearlings that became pregnant was consequently lower in the unsupplemented population than in the population that received supplementary forage. Cohort effects on hind body mass (negative for density and positive for rainfall at birth) and on the probability of pregnancy (negative for density at birth) were apparent only in the unsupplemented population, which implies that supplemental feeding may partially compensate for negative density-dependent factors during early growth, and that supplemented deer hinds may experience reduced selection pressures. These results reflect the particular seasonal variation in the abundance and quality of food in Mediterranean habitats. The delayed effects of climate and density at birth on adult hind body mass and the prevalence of pregnancy probably affects population dynamics and constitutes a mechanism by which cohort effects affect the population dynamics in Iberian red deer. The management of Iberian red deer populations should take into account cohort effects and supplemental feeding practices, which can buffer density- and climate-dependent effects and reduce natural selection pressures.

Sterol limitation in a pollen-fed omnivorous lady beetle (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)

Nutritional constraints of non-prey foods for entomophagous arthropods are seldom investigated, yet are crucial to understanding their nutritional ecology and function within natural and managed environments. We investigated whether pollen from five maize hybrids was of variable quality for the lady beetle, Coleomegilla maculata, whether suitability of these pollens was related with their sterol profiles, and how augmenting sterols (β-sitosterol, cholesterol, or ergosterol) affected the fitness and performance of C. maculata. Preimaginal survival, development rates, the duration of the pre-oviposition period, post-mortem adult dry weight, adult hind tibial length, sex ratio, fecundity, cohort generation time (Tc), net replacement rate (R0) and intrinsic rate of increase (r) were measured. Individual sterols in the pollens were quantified using GC–MS. Pollens were of variable suitability for C. maculata; the development rate was positively correlated with the amount of 24-methylene-cholesterol and r was positively correlated with episterol and 24-methylene-lophenol found in the pollens. Performance of C. maculata was entirely unaffected by augmenting pollen meals with sterols. This research shows that pollens clearly vary in their sterol contents intraspecifically, which affects their suitability for omnivores that rely on pollen. However, sterols appear to be only one of the limiting nutrients in pollens.

Deregulated Protein Kinase A Signaling and Myospryn Expression in Muscular Dystrophy

Alterations in signaling pathway activity have been implicated in the pathogenesis of Duchenne muscular dystrophy, a degenerative muscle disease caused by a deficiency in the costameric protein dystrophin. Accordingly, the notion of the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex, and by extension the costamere, as harboring signaling components has received increased attention in recent years. The localization of most, if not all, signaling enzymes to this subcellular region relies on interactions with scaffolding proteins directly or indirectly associated with the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex. One of these scaffolds is myospryn, a large, muscle-specific protein kinase A (PKA) anchoring protein or AKAP. Previous studies have demonstrated a dysregulation of myospryn expression in human Duchenne muscular dystrophy, suggesting a connection to the pathophysiology of the disorder. Here we report that dystrophic muscle exhibits reduced PKA activity resulting, in part, from severely mislocalized myospryn and the type II regulatory subunit (RIIalpha) of PKA. Furthermore, we show that myospryn and dystrophin coimmunoprecipitate in native muscle extracts and directly interact in vitro. Our findings reveal for the first time abnormalities in the PKA signal transduction pathway and myospryn regulation in dystrophin deficiency.

Effects ofHelicoverpa armigera(Noctuidae, Lepidoptera) host stages on some developmental parameters of the uniparental endoparasitoidMeteorus pulchricornis (Braconidae, Hymenoptera)

A single choice test was performed to examine developmental strategies in the uniparental endoparasitoid Meteorus pulchricornis and its host, the cotton bollworm Helicoverpa armigera. The results support the dome-shaped model in which the fitness functions are 'dome-shaped' relative to size (and age) of host at parasitism. Older and, hence, larger host larvae were simply not better hosts for the developing parasitoids. Although parasitoid size (measured as cocoon weight and adult hind tibia length) was positively correlated with host instars at parasitism, parasitoids developing in larger hosts (L5 and L6) suffered much higher mortality than conspecifics developing in smaller hosts (L2-L4). Furthermore, egg-to-adult development time in M. pulchricornis was significantly longer in older host larvae (L4-L6) than in the younger. Performance of M. pulchricornis, as indicated by fitness-related traits, strongly suggests that the L3 host is the most suitable for survival, growth and development of the parasitoid, followed by both L2 and L4 hosts; whereas, L1, L5 and L6 are the least favourable hosts. The oviposition tendency of M. pulchricornis, represented by parasitism level, was not perfectly consistent with the performance of the offspring; L2-L4 hosts, although with the same parasitism level, had offspring parasitoids with differences in fitness-related performance. Larval development in Helicoverpa armigera was usually suspended, but occasionally advanced, in the final instar.

Study of Bone Quality and Growth Characteristics of Growth Plate following Limb Transplantation between Animals of Different Ages-results of an Experimental Study on Male Syngeneic Rats

Background: Osteoporosis of transplanted/grafted bone is well known in the immediate post bone transplantation/bone grafting period. In limb transplantation, the growth plates in the transplanted limbs retain their longitudinal growth properties. However, there is a paucity of reports on what happens to the bone and the growth potential of the growth plate when limb transplantation between a juvenile donor and an adult recipient is performed. Materials and Methods: Ten juvenile to juvenile hind limb transplants and five juvenile to adult hind limb transplants were performed in male syngeneic Lewis rats. Osteoporosis in the isochronograft as well as the heterochronograft limbs was measured by 3D micro-CT. In addition, the increase in tibial length, after transplantation was measured and compared with the increase in the tibial length of the opposite non-operated limbs. Results: The 3D CT parameters indicate a significantly inferior bone quality in the heterochronografts compared with the isochronografts. After transplantation, the increase in the tibial length of the isochronografts was similar the increase in length of the opposite juvenile non operated tibiae and the heterochronograft tibias. Conclusion: Age is a significant factor that affects the bone quality, resulting in post transplant osteoporosis in heterochronografts compared with isochronografts. However, the growth plate after transplantation remains unaffected by the difference in age and continues to grow at its own inherent rate in adult recipients as it does in the juvenile recipients.

Three-dimensional in vivo motion of adult hind foot bones

Knowledge of hind foot bone motion is important for understanding gait as well as various foot pathologies, but the three-dimensional (3D) motion of these bones remains incompletely understood. The purpose of this study was to quantify the motion of the talus, calcaneus, navicular, and cuboid in normal adult feet during open chain quasi-static uniplanar plantar flexion motion. Magnetic resonance images of the right feet of six normal young adult males were taken from which 3D virtual models were made of each hind foot bone. The 3D motion of these models was analyzed. Each hind foot bone rotated in the same plane about half as much as the foot (mean 0.54° of bone rotation per degree of foot motion, range 0.40–0.73° per degree of foot motion as measured relative to the fixed tibia). Talar motion was primarily uniaxial, but the calcaneus, navicular, and cuboid bones exhibited biplanar (sometimes triplanar) translation in addition to biaxial rotation. Net translational motions of these bones averaged 0.39 mm of bone translation per degree of foot motion (range 0.06–0.62 mm per degree of foot motion). These data reflect the functional anatomy of the foot, extend the findings of prior studies, provide a standard for comparison to patients with congenital or acquired foot deformities, and establish an objective reference for quantitatively assessing the efficacy of various hind foot therapies.

Reproductive performance of farmed red deer ( Cervus elaphus) in New Zealand: V : Mob and individual-hind risk factors associated with calf rearing to weaning

A 2-year longitudinal observational study of 15 red deer farms was carried out in New Zealand from March 1992. Both years combined, 3364 adult and 653 yearling hinds were diagnosed pregnant in June by ultrasound scanning and monitored for reproductive success up to weaning. At weaning, pre-rut at approximately 100 days after calving, udders were palpated or observed by the farmer and hinds were categorised as lactating (wet) indicating survival of calf, or not lactating (dry). Farm management practices during calving and early lactation were recorded. Analysis of risk factors associated with progeny survival was done using path analysis (separately for adult and yearling hinds). Adult hinds >3 years old at calving, conceiving before 1 May and having a body-condition score >2 in September had 2.8, 2.4 and 2.9 times significantly higher odds of rearing a calf to weaning than other hinds, respectively. Adult hinds had about 5 times lower odds of rearing a calf to weaning when they were mixed with mature stags during calving. When farmers visited calving paddocks and checked for calving problems, adult hinds had 1.7 times higher odds of rearing a calf to weaning. When the farmer entered calving paddocks at least every second time they observed the hinds, yearling hinds had a twice higher odds of rearing a calf up to weaning. Sunny weather and high maximum temperatures were positively and negatively associated, respectively, with the probability of an adult hind being in lactation at weaning.

Reproductive performance of farmed red deer ( Cervus elaphus) in New Zealand: II. Risk factors for adult hind conception

A 2-year longitudinal observational study of 15 red deer farms was carried out in New Zealand from March 1992. About 2600 adult hinds were individually monitored for reproductive success. After mating, hinds were pregnancy-tested by ultrasound and were classified as having conceived before 1 May, after 1 May or as being not pregnant. Risk factors potentially affecting the probability of conception before 1 May or of conception that year were investigated using path analysis. Final path diagrams were used to formulate a putative management strategy for farmers to achieve the desired reproductive performance from adult hinds. To achieve a high pregnancy rate early in the mating season, farmers should wean calves early, exclude hinds which failed to rear a calf to weaning and hinds with a body condition score ≤2.0 at mating, join hinds early with one or more sire stags, use only experienced sires for mating, limit the hind : stag ratio, use at least one back-up sire after the peak of mating, keep mating mobs away from disturbance and avoid shifting or handling mating mobs. The farmer should choose paddocks with high green pasture allowance and grazed down to no less than 5 cm high.

Reproductive performance of farmed red deer (Cervus elaphus) in New Zealand. IV. Biological markers as risk factors for yearling and adult hind conception.

A 2-year observational study of 15 red deer (Cervus elephus) farms was carried out in New Zealand from March 1992. In each year of study, approximately 1650 hinds were individually monitored for reproductive success. During farm visits in March 1992 and 1993, five yearling and five adult hinds per farm were randomly selected and blood sampled to define their haematological, biochemical and blood mineral profile. Faecal samples were taken for parasite egg and larvae count. Biological markers potentially affecting the probability of conception before May 1 or of conception that year were investigated separately using multivariable logistic regression analysis. Adult hinds with low serum phosphorus concentrations were more likely to conceive before May 1. Lower conception rates were observed in yearling hinds when blood glutathione peroxidase, serum vitamin B12, and serum albumin concentrations were low, and when faecal lungworm larval counts were high. While these associations have yet to be proven as causal, data suggests that monitoring and maintaining adequate blood elements, and controlling internal parasites in yearling hinds, may assist farmers to achieve optimum reproductive performance in farmed red deer herds.

Behaviour and weight change of red deer calves during different weaning procedures

Two studies were carried out to examine the effectiveness of confinement indoors and the presence of adult hinds in reducing stress in farmed red deer calves separated from their dams for weaning at 3–4 months of age. In a preliminary pilot trial, 30 male and 30 female calves were weighed and randomly allocated to five groups of 12 animals (six males and six females). Each group was assigned to a different treatment: not weaned, or weaned and then confined in a paddock or indoors for 7 days, with or without two hand-reared hinds added to the group of calves during confinement. Activities observed over 5 days following weaning differed between the groups. The unweaned group spent the most time lying in sternal recumbency, indoor groups spent the most time standing and eating, and the outdoor group without hinds spent the most time pacing the fenceline. Analysis of variance revealed that both confinement indoors and the presence of hinds improved weight gain over the 7-day period following weaning. In an experiment carried out to determine how the presence of hinds might reduce weaning stress, 90 calves were allocated randomly to 15 groups of six. The distance maintained by the calves from: (a) a human, and (b) a novel object was tested, with either no adult hind ( n=5 groups), or one of two hinds ( n=10 groups) added to the group. Groups with a hind present showed less fear of the human and the novel object, and the behaviour of the groups varied according to the particular hind they were tested with. It was concluded from the two experiments that both confinement indoors and the presence of a hind were effective methods of reducing weaning stress, and that the hind reduced fear responses in the calves.