Adult Education Survey Research Articles

Bounded advantages of higher education regarding young adults’ participation in nonformal education

The article uses insights from the capability approach as a theoretical framework. It investigates the potential of higher education to provide fertile advantages regarding young adults’ participation in nonformal education and whether this potential is bounded by people’s individual characteristics and the wider social context in which they live. Applying descriptive statistics and multilevel modelling, we conducted a secondary data analysis of the Adult Education Survey for 29 European countries. The findings go beyond previous research by clearly demonstrating that the fertile advantages of higher education regarding participation in adult nonformal education are not absolute and straightforward. They are bounded not only by certain important individual characteristics (such as individuals’ social background and household income) but are also context-dependent. More concretely, they differ among countries and depend on various country-level factors, such as level of innovation and economic growth.

TÜRK İŞGÜCÜ PİYASASINDA OKUL SONRASI YATIRIM, EĞİTİM VE ÜCRET DİNAMİKLERİ: BETİMSEL BİR ÇALIŞMA

Although Human Capital Theory asserts post-school investment as an important mechanism in the wage differentials, it is not adequately scrutinized by the literature. Post-school investment is linked to demographic factors like gender, age, education, marital status, etc., and has a dual effect in the wage differentials of individuals (Blaug, 1976; Mincer J. A., 1974a; Polachek, 1975; Rodríguez, Saltiel, & Urzua, 2018). Moreover, PSI can mediate the effect of education on wages which has been widely discussed in the literature. In light of these, this study aims to understand the dynamics of post-school investment, education, and wages in relation with other demographics ignoring the causal relationship between these variables using Adult Education Survey (TURKSTAT, 2007). Results indicate that PSI is high for observations who are young, non-married, women, high wage earner, non-routine job holder, and vocational collage school graduate. Interestingly, results indicate that low wage earners have to invest on their human capital to compete in the labor market against job losses most probably as they are low skilled workers, and their abilities are prone to depreciation easily. Moreover, men can earn more than women, even if they have a lower education level.

Impact of COVID‐19 on participation and barriers in nonformal adult education in the Czech Republic

AbstractThe impact that the COVID‐19 pandemic has had on nonformal adult education has become a frequently discussed issue in lifelong learning. Nonformal adult education is understood here as all organised adult learning outside formal education that usually does not result in official certification. Many scholars have considered the pandemic as the leading cause of both decreased participation in nonformal adult education and increased inequality among adults. Nevertheless, it has not yet been empirically established how profound this outcome has been for participation patterns, inequality and perceived barriers to involvement in nonformal adult education. Accordingly, this study explored how much the pandemic contributed to a decrease in overall participation, changes in participation patterns, as well as contributed to an increase in related inequalities in the Czech Republic. This article reports on results from a national representative survey in June 2020 (N = 1013) conducted between the first and second wave of the pandemic. Trends in participation in nonformal adult education along with barriers were mapped for the 12 months preceding the survey. To establish trends, we compared our results with data from the Adult Education Survey conducted in 2011 and 2016, respectively. Our analytical approach is primarily based on descriptive statistics and modelling factors influencing the involvement of adults in nonformal adult education. We found that overall participation in nonformal adult education decreased from June 2019 to June 2020 to its lowest recorded level. Furthermore, the results indicate that inequality based on educational attainment, as well as the perception of substantial institutional and situational barriers have significantly increased.

Language skills and unemployment: post-Soviet bilingualism in Latvia

ABSTRACT This study investigates the relationship between the unemployment of working-age men with their skills in the local languages, Russian and Latvian, and in English, the most spoken foreign language in Latvia. To determine who benefits and from which language skills in the labour market, the analysis uses data from the Eurostat Adult Education Survey (AES 2016) and the Baltic Institute of Social Sciences Language Survey (BISS 2008). The results show an inverse link between language skills and unemployment for Latvians and Russian speakers, but more so for the latter. English skills benefit the older Latvian workers without a tertiary degree, while for Russians the benefits are greater and more general. Latvian skills benefit the younger tertiary-educated Russian speakers. For Latvians, the link between Russian-language skills and unemployment remains inconclusive. The analysis considers the bilingual context and the measurement bias of self-reported language skills.

Uneven Returns to Nondegree Work Credentials for Older Workers

AbstractUsing the U.S. Adult Training and Education Survey (N = 41,442), we examined the impact of acquiring nondegree work credentials at different ages on labor market outcomes, focusing on those close to retirement age. We examined two types of work credentials—occupational licenses and certifications. The majority of survey respondents, aged 16–66 years when surveyed, earned their most important credential, especially occupational licenses, at an early stage (before 35 years old). Although a significant share of older respondents held a work credential, fewer acquired a new credential close to retirement age. Results of multinominal logistic regression showed those obtaining a work credential close to retirement age (55–64 years old) were more likely to be in the labor force than noncredentialed respondents, but they were more likely to be underemployed or unemployed, controlling for demographic characteristics. Of those in the labor force, respondents earning a credential later (55–64 years old) were more likely to work part-time and have multiple jobs than noncredentialed respondents; those who earned a credential earlier (16–34 years old) were less likely to work part-time and more likely to work more hours weekly. Finally, among credential holders, older respondents thought work credentials earned at a younger age were more useful as a labor market signal; credentials earned later were less effective to gain or keep a job or to ensure marketability. Job-related effectiveness of occupational licenses decreased as the age when such credentials were earned increased, but certifications earned later were more likely viewed as a way to improve work skills than certifications earned at a younger age.

Gender Gap in Intergenerational Educational Persistence: Can Compulsory Schooling Reduce It?

We analyze the impact of an increase in compulsory schooling policy on the gender gap in intergenerational educational persistence using the nationally representative Turkish Adult Education Survey. Prior to the reform, there is a gender gap in the association of parents’ educational attainment with their offspring’s. Daughters’ educational attainment is more dependent on their parents’ education background. We show that the education reform that increased compulsory schooling from 5 to 8 years reduced the impact of parental education on completion of new compulsory schooling (8 years) and post-compulsory schooling (high school) for both sons and daughters. The gender gap in intergenerational education transmission has decreased by about 5 percentage points in the completion of new compulsory schooling level but remains unchanged at the post-compulsory schooling level after the reform. Heterogeneous effects of the reform indicate that mandating additional years of education is an ineffective intervention in the eastern regions with poorer economic conditions, larger rural population, and more traditional gender views in reducing the gender gap in educational mobility, even at the compulsory level of education.

Adult education: reaching the unreached

The adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals in 2015 was welcome globally, mainstreaming sustainability in all sectors, including education and training under Goal 4, which advocated “inclusive and equitable quality education and promotion of lifelong learning opportunities for all”. However, is it realistic to attain a substantially equitable adult education policy amidst the hegemony of neoliberal regimes and utilitarian approaches? Our data, drawn from the OECD Survey of Adult Skills and the European Adult Education Survey (AES), highlight, in alignment with relevant research, that education and training opportunities are still significantly unequal, failing to reach those adults more at risk, reproducing a “Matthew” effect. Against this backdrop, the present policy brief reiterates important parameters that have emanated from relevant research, which can formulate a set of concrete measures that bear the potential to facilitate the “unreached” not simply to participate, but also to substantially benefit from adult education, mitigating social inequalities.

Adult Education and lifelong learning in Southern European societies

In a context of generalization of education and centralization of knowledge in today's societies, followed by the "intragerationality" (Enguita, 2007) of change, individuals were required to be actively and continuously involved in new stages of education and learning. The right - and the duty - to a relationship with education has been affirmed - beyond initial education and school - which must take place throughout and wide life. The current "cosmopolitanization" of societies (Beck, 2016), underlines the importance of a transnational analysis, for the understanding of social phenomena. Recognizing the importance of a comparing analysis of adult education in Southern European countries, this article aims for the share of regularities and differences that are found in adult education and training systems and in the relationship that adults in each of these countries have with lifelong education. Because we can only understand the adult’s relation with Lifelong Learning by previously analysing his social structure [adult education and training systems], firstly it will be presented the result of a documental analysis which compares adult education systems in Southern European countries [their history, educational contexts, public policies, promoters and adult learning modalities]. Subsequently, and through secondary analysis of data from the Adult Education Survey (2016), the relationship with lifelong learning in each of these countries, through participation and its main barriers, will be compared. These comparisons will allow improvement in the effectiveness by reaching the generalization of LLL in the so-called Southern European countries, allowing them to learn with each other’s, benchmarking good practices.

Corruption-Driven Inequalities in Access to Adult Education

The article aims to show that taking into account diverse characteristics of the wider social environment is indispensable for a better understanding of participation in adult education (PAE). It explores the association of corruption as a macro factor with PAE, arguing for an integrated approach to PAE. By using two indexes for corruption at country level Corruption Perception Index and the Index of Public Integrity—and micro-data for adults aged 25–64 from 29 European countries in the Adult Education Survey, 2016, as well as by applying random-effects logit models, this study has demonstrated that a country's higher corruption level is associated with the lower probability of PAE. Our article also reveals that the relationships between individual-level variables such as gender, higher education, social background, and PAE are embedded in a wider social milieu, and corruption is an essential characteristic of that milieu which deepens some of the inequalities in PAE.

Od mimoprofesní seberealizace k nezbytnosti pracovně orientovaného vzdělávání: Proměna motivace k neformálnímu vzdělávání dospělých v ČR

The study deals with recent changes in the motivation for pursuing non-formal adult education (NFE) in the Czech Republic and the factors behind this. Although the number of people pursuing NFE has been increasing dynamically in recent years, we do not yet have enough knowledge about the reasons adults pursue NFE and the factors that influence it. In this regard, the study aims to identify (1) the main trends in work/non-work, intrinsic, and extrinsic motivations for NFE and (2) the micro- and meso-social determinants that shape these trends. The study is based on a secondary analysis of data from the Adult Education Survey 2011 (N = 2715) and 2016 (N = 4034). The conclusion shows a significant shift from a non-work-oriented to a work-oriented motivation for participating in NFE and fluctuations between intrinsic to extrinsic motivations. The key factors influencing the 'reorientation' of this motivation among working adults are educational attainment, high occupational status, and to some degree also gender and the size of the company a person works in.

Education and Its Role in the Economic Development of the Country and Government Policies to be Undertaken to Increase the Quality of Education, the Case of Albania

Our paper focuses on education and, how the high-quality education affects welfare and economic growth in the case of Albania. The data were provided by INSTAT (Institute of Statistics, Albania) on the results of the adult education survey by gender, age group which refers to the population aged 25-64 years and, level of education, including three levels of education, elementary/primary education, secondary education, and postsecondary/higher education. Despite the fact that we provided the data in 2017, they would serve us to highlight some problems related to the quality of education in Albania, which would be important to develop different strategies to improve these problems in the coming years. Another priority of this paper is to define and recommend some government policies that would increase the quality of education, in order for us to have a better economic growth in the future. Here we have used the descriptive method, and through tables and charts we have provided a comparative analysis, based on some statistics which are expressed in percentage (%). However, the main purpose here is to show through comparative analysis the level of participation in types of education, trainings, and cultural activities by gender, age group, and level of education, therefore showing the relationship between the quality of education and economic growth. We will also handle some of the government policies that recommend in order to increase quality of the education in the future.
 
 Received: 4 September 2020 / Accepted: 17 December 2020 / Published: 17 January 2021

Continuing Training for Persons with Higher Education – Challenges and Opportunities for Universities

The offered continuing education in higher schools in Bulgaria covers various activities, among which the non-formal training courses stand out, aimed mainly at persons with higher education. The ongoing changes in the socioeconomic environment are accompanied by the dynamics of the users of non-formal education and the formation of certain challenges for continuing education and training in higher education. The main goal of the article is to study the state and dynamics of participation in nonformal education of the population with higher education in Bulgaria, on the basis of which conclusions are formulated for future policies and approaches to improve the continuing education offered in higher education. The object of research are people with higher education in Bulgaria, and the subject of research is the participation in non-formal training. The main source of information is statistics from the last three editions (2007, 2011 and 2016) of the Adult Education Survey (Eurostat), which covers EU countries and provides opportunities for comparative analysis within the community. The 2007-2016 period coincides with the first decade of Bulgaria’s membership in the EU, including the beginning of the formation of the integrated European labor market in the conditions of free movement of people and workers.

Formal and Non-Formal Education and Training As an Instrument Fostering Innovation and Competitiveness in EU Member Countries

An important role in economic development and competitiveness is played by human capital, that is believed to lead to the growth of innovation. The innovative activities of companies, with a well-educated workforce as an essential component, are a necessary condition for any economy to achieve a competitive advantage in the international arena. The study objective was to investigate the relationship between the type of education (formal or non-formal) of individuals aged 25-64 and the level of innovation in the European Union member countries. The study uses data provided by Eurostat from three international surveys: The Labor Force Survey (LFS), Adult Education Survey (AES) and Community Innovation Surveys (CIS). The econometric analysis was carried out using tobit regression models. The study shows that innovation levels of EU countries, as measured by the synthetic SII index strongly depend on 1) the share of people with tertiary education undertaking additional formal or non-formal education, 2) the share of employees undertaking additional formal education, and 3) the share of persons undertaking additional formal or non-formal education. Among the variables studied, the smallest impact on the innovativeness of economies was that of the share of persons undertaking additional formal education. The results indicate a significant and positive role of additional education in increasing the level of innovation and competitiveness in the EU economies.

Combining learning with family responsibilities: European women in comparative perspective

PurposeWhile women in most European societies still carry the largest burden in caring for the family, there is also an important unrealised learning interest among women. This has an impact on women's labour market and career opportunities. This paper aims at analysing empirically the role of family obligations in women's ability to realise their learning interests and how this differs across societal and institutional contexts across Europe.Design/methodology/approachThe paper makes use of the second wave of Adult Education Survey from 2011, including data from 22 European countries. The article focuses on women aged 25–55 – an age group most affected by parental obligations. Logistic regression models are used to compare the effect that children in the household have on women's learning barriers across country groups of different family policy arrangements.FindingsThe results confirm empirically the situational nature of family barriers to learning as they grow and decline depending on the age of children. However, the level of intensity and the period when family-related barriers remain relevant for women vary across European countries.Originality/valueThis paper provides new insights into how women's caring obligations shape their labour market and career opportunities, focussing on the ability to take up adult learning. Involving data from 22 countries, including Eastern European countries, provides a broad look into the differing contexts shaping women's opportunities across Europe.

Hidden gender differences in formal and non-formal adult education

ABSTRACT One of the most often repeated goals in modern society is making education available to all on equal terms, regardless of social origin, culture or individual characteristics such as age, gender or the socio-economic status of an individual. However, in relation to gender inequality within learning environments, in the Czech Republic the traditional roles of men and women are still deeply inscribed. The results of the present study are primarily based on an Adult Education Survey which provides high quality data on the participation rates of the Czech population in formal and non-formal adult learning and education (ALE). Despite equal gender participation rates in ALE, the presented findings show that men participate more in job-related training and job-related purposes, while women manage domestic tasks, a situation which reflects the predominance of women in part-time employment, earning a lower monthly income and obtaining less work-related learning. This socio-economic profile influences not only women’s income but also affects their access to education and becomes the main barrier in the concrete form of family-related responsibilities and costs. Moreover, for women more personal-related learning has been shown to predominate as opposed to job-related education.

Immigrant disadvantage in the labour market: the role of attitudinal context

ABSTRACT There is ample evidence that immigrants are at a disadvantage in the labour market. Previous studies show that discrimination and devaluation are important factors in explaining why immigrants are occupationally segregated. Three kinds of discriminatory behaviours can be distinguished: aversions, cognitive biases, and erroneous attributions. The present article is part of the debate on the mechanisms that generate inequality and argues that the attitudinal context (social norm) influences labour market outcomes by moderating the impact of these three discriminatory behaviours. This idea is empirically examined in an analysis of the role of openness towards immigrants on the immigrant-native occupational status gap and in the comparative advantage of their language skills. Data from the Adult Education Survey is modelled together with contextual data from the European Social Survey using country fixed-effects regressions. The results indicate that immigrants are at a disadvantage, although the extent of this disadvantage varies significantly among countries partly due to the influence of openness towards immigrants.

Gender Gap in Intergenerational Educational Persistence: Can Compulsory Schooling Reduce it?

We analyze the impact of an increase in compulsory schooling policy on the gender gap in intergenerational educational persistence using the Turkish Adult Education Survey (2012). Prior to the reform there is a gender gap in the association of parents' educational attainment with their offspring's. Daughters exhibit more intergenerational persistence than sons. We show that the education reform that increased compulsory schooling from 5 to 8 years, exposed children born after 1986 to 3 more years of schooling and reduced the effect of parental education on the completion probability of new compulsory schooling (8 years) from 30% to 1% percentage points for sons and from 49% to 11% percentage points for daughters, while the effect of parental education on post-compulsory schooling outcomes of sons and daughters decreased by 12 and 13 percentage points, respectively. The gender gap in intergenerational education transmission has decreased by 8 percentage points in the completion of new compulsory schooling level but remains unchanged at the post-compulsory schooling level after the reform.

An Empirical Study of the Influence of Continuing Education on Youth Entrepreneurship in Taiwan

Despite the importance of lifelong education and its reported benefits for graduates entering the workforce, few empirical studies have evaluated the relationship between continuing education on entrepreneurship. In order to address this research gap, this study conducted secondary data analysis from the 2015 Adult Education Survey in Taiwan (AEST 2015) conducted by the Taiwan Ministry of Education. The purpose of this study was to determine the proportion of youth engaged in entrepreneurship (as measured by self-employment) and evaluate the relationship between continuing education and youth entrepreneurship. A sample from Taiwan was purposefully selected due to cultural factors which balance Eastern and Western approaches to education, allowing for better generalizability to a variety of populations. Data from a total of 2,696 valid participants was utilized. The results are as follows: a) the rate of youth entrepreneurship in Taiwan is moderate, at 8%; b) participation in continuing education demonstrated no significant relationship on youth entrepreneurship; c) entrepreneurial youth tend not to participate in continuing education, citing reasons including “lack of time” and “lack of necessary courses” at a frequency higher than non-entrepreneurial youth; and d) in terms of opportunities for future participation in continuing education, entrepreneurial youth placed less emphasis on the importance of transportation costs and tuition fees as compared to non-entrepreneurial youths. The results of this study suggest that continuing education courses are not currently meeting the needs of young entrepreneurs. Conclusions and suggestions are provided in terms of the evaluation of youth self-employment and continuing education opportunities for the promotion of entrepreneurship.

An Empirical Study of the Influence of Continuing Education on Youth Entrepreneurship in Taiwan

Despite the importance of lifelong education and its reported benefits for graduates entering the workforce, few empirical studies have evaluated the relationship between continuing education on entrepreneurship. In order to address this research gap, this study conducted secondary data analysis from the 2015 Adult Education Survey in Taiwan (AEST 2015) conducted by the Taiwan Ministry of Education. The purpose of this study was to determine the proportion of youth engaged in entrepreneurship (as measured by self-employment) and evaluate the relationship between continuing education and youth entrepreneurship. A sample from Taiwan was purposefully selected due to cultural factors which balance Eastern and Western approaches to education, allowing for better generalizability to a variety of populations. Data from a total of 2,696 valid participants was utilized. The results are as follows: a) the rate of youth entrepreneurship in Taiwan is moderate, at 8%; b) participation in continuing education demonstrated no significant relationship on youth entrepreneurship; c) entrepreneurial youth tend not to participate in continuing education, citing reasons including “lack of time” and “lack of necessary courses” at a frequency higher than non-entrepreneurial youth; and d) in terms of opportunities for future participation in continuing education, entrepreneurial youth placed less emphasis on the importance of transportation costs and tuition fees as compared to non-entrepreneurial youths. The results of this study suggest that continuing education courses are not currently meeting the needs of young entrepreneurs. Conclusions and suggestions are provided in terms of the evaluation of youth self-employment and continuing education opportunities for the promotion of entrepreneurship.

Foreign language skills and employment status of European natives: evidence from Germany, Italy and Spain

This article examines the relationship between foreign language skills and the employment status of natives in Germany, Italy and Spain. Using a probit model and data from Eurostat’s Adult Education Survey 2011, this article studies the conditional correlation between knowledge of English and French as foreign languages, and the probability of being employed, comparatively, for men and women. The results reveal that skills in English increase the probability of being employed for men in the three countries, respectively, by 3.4, 4.3 and 5.2%. Knowledge of English increases the probability of being employed for women in Germany and Italy—respectively, by 5.6 and 5.7%—but not in Spain. The results also show that very good skills are associated with a higher probability of being employed than sufficient or good skills. The conditional correlation between knowledge of English and employment status for men is larger in countries where skills in this language are less common among the population, and where the unemployment rate is higher. This is consistent with the fundamental economic concept of scarcity. Estimates for French are not statistically significant.