ADP-glucose Pyrophosphorylase Research Articles

Glycogen synthesis prevents metabolic imbalance and disruption of photosynthetic electron transport from photosystem II during transition to photomixotrophy in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803.

Some cyanobacteria can grow photoautotrophically or photomixotrophically by using simultaneously CO2 and glucose. The switch between these trophic modes and the role of glycogen, their main carbon storage macromolecule, was investigated. We analysed the effect of glucose addition on the physiology, metabolic and photosynthetic state of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 and mutants lacking phosphoglucomutase and ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase, with limitations in glycogen synthesis. Glycogen acted as a metabolic buffer: glucose addition increased growth and glycogen reserves in the wild-type (WT), but arrested growth in the glycogen synthesis mutants. Already 30 min after glucose addition, metabolites from the Calvin-Benson-Bassham cycle and the oxidative pentose phosphate shunt increased threefold more in the glycogen synthesis mutants than the WT. These alterations substantially affected the photosynthetic performance of the glycogen synthesis mutants, as O2 evolution and CO2 uptake were both impaired. We conclude that glycogen synthesis is essential during transitions to photomixotrophy to avoid metabolic imbalance that induces inhibition of electron transfer from PSII and subsequently accumulation of reactive oxygen species, loss of PSII core proteins, and cell death. Our study lays foundations for optimising photomixotrophy-based biotechnologies through understanding the coordination of the crosstalk between photosynthetic electron transport and metabolism.

Genome-wide association analysis and transgenic characterization for amylose content regulating gene in tuber of Dioscorea zingiberensis

BackgroundAmylose, a prebiotic found in yams is known to be beneficial for the gut microflora and is particularly advantageous for diabetic patients’ diet. However, the genetic machinery underlying amylose production remains elusive. A comprehensive characterization of the genetic basis of amylose content in yam tubers is a prerequisite for accelerating the genetic engineering of yams with respect to amylose content variation.ResultsTo uncover the genetic variants underlying variation in amylose content, we evaluated amylose content in freshly harvested tubers from 150 accessions of Dioscorea zingibensis. With 30,000 high-quality single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP), we performed a genome-wide association analysis (GWAS). The population structure analysis classified the D. zingiberensis accessions into three groups. A total of 115 significant loci were detected on four chromosomes. Of these, 112 significant SNPs (log10(p) = 5, q-value < 0.004) were clustered in a narrow window on the chromosome 6 (chr6). The peak SNP at the position 75,609,202 on chr6 could explain 63.15% of amylose variation in the population and fell into the first exon of the ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase) small subunit gene, causing a non-synonymous modification of the resulting protein sequence. Allele segregation analysis showed that accessions with the rare G allele had a higher amylose content than those harboring the common A allele. However, AGPase, a key enzyme precursor of amylose biosynthesis, was not expressed differentially between accessions with A and G alleles. Overexpression of the two variants of AGPase in Arabidopsis thaliana resulted in a significantly higher amylose content in lines transformed with the AGPase-G allele.ConclusionsOverall, this study showed that a major genetic variant in AGPase probably enhances the enzyme activity leading to high amylose content in D. zingiberensis tuber. The results provide valuable insights for the development of amylose-enriched genotypes.

Difference in responsiveness of expressions of starch synthesis-related genes to CRCT among rice cultivars

ABSTRACT CO2-Responsive CCT Protein (CRCT) is a transcription factor regulating the expression of starch synthesis-related genes in the vegetative organs of rice. Among six rice cultivars (Nipponbare, Koshihikari, Habataki, Takanari, Momiroman, Leafstar), the expression of CRCT was highly correlated with the starch content of leaf sheath in Nipponbare, but not in Koshihikari, Takanari and Momiroman during plant development. Meanwhile, the expressions of starch synthesis-related genes such as ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase large subunit 1 was correlated with CRCT expression in Nipponbare, Momiroman, and Leafstar, but the correlations were ambiguous in Koshihikari, Habataki, and Takanari. In addition, the slopes of its regression lines in Nipponbare were larger than those cultivars. These results suggest that the influence of CRCT on starch synthesis varies among these cultivars. Additionally, the similar cultivar differences were observed when these gene expressions were analyzed after sucrose treatment in leaf blade. Some mutations in the promoter regions of the starch synthesis-related genes were identified among these cultivars. There were cultivars in which the presence of mutations correlated with decreased expression of starch synthesis genes in response to CRCT. Thus, these mutations can partially explain the responsiveness of the starch synthesis-related genes to CRCT, and difference in starch content of vegetative organs among rice cultivars.

Architecture, Function, Regulation, and Evolution of α-Glucans Metabolic Enzymes in Prokaryotes.

Bacteria have acquired sophisticated mechanisms for assembling and disassembling polysaccharides of different chemistry. α-d-Glucose homopolysaccharides, so-called α-glucans, are the most widespread polymers in nature being key components of microorganisms. Glycogen functions as an intracellular energy storage while some bacteria also produce extracellular assorted α-glucans. The classical bacterial glycogen metabolic pathway comprises the action of ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase and glycogen synthase, whereas extracellular α-glucans are mostly related to peripheral enzymes dependent on sucrose. An alternative pathway of glycogen biosynthesis, operating via a maltose 1-phosphate polymerizing enzyme, displays an essential wiring with the trehalose metabolism to interconvert disaccharides into polysaccharides. Furthermore, some bacteria show a connection of intracellular glycogen metabolism with the genesis of extracellular capsular α-glucans, revealing a relationship between the storage and structural function of these compounds. Altogether, the current picture shows that bacteria have evolved an intricate α-glucan metabolism that ultimately relies on the evolution of a specific enzymatic machinery. The structural landscape of these enzymes exposes a limited number of core catalytic folds handling many different chemical reactions. In this Review, we present a rationale to explain how the chemical diversity of α-glucans emerged from these systems, highlighting the underlying structural evolution of the enzymes driving α-glucan bacterial metabolism.

Exploring the structural assembly of rice ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase subunits using MD simulation

ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase plays a pivotal role as an allosteric enzyme, essential for starch biosynthesis in plants. The higher plant AGPase comparises of a pair of large and a pair of small subunits to form a heterotetrameric complex. Growing evidence indicates that each subunit plays a distinct role in regulating the underlying mechanism of starch biosynthesis. In the rice genome, there are four large subunit genes (OsL1-L4) and three small subunit genes (OsS1, OsS2a, and OsS2b). While the structural assembly of cytosolic rice AGPase subunits (OsL2:OsS2b) has been elucidated, there is currently no such documented research available for plastidial rice AGPases (OsL1:OsS1). In this study, we employed protein modeling and MD simulation approaches to gain insights into the structural association of plastidial rice AGPase subunits. Our results demonstrate that the heterotetrameric association of OsL1:OsS1 is very similar to that of cytosolic OsL2:OsS2b and potato AGPase heterotetramer (StLS:StSS). Moreover, the yeast-two-hybrid results on OsL1:OsS1, which resemble StLS:StSS, suggest a differential protein assembly for OsL2:OsS2b. Thus, the regulatory and catalytic mechanisms for plastidial AGPases (OsL1:OsS1) could be different in rice culm and developing endosperm compared to those of OsL2:OsS2b, which are predominantly found in rice endosperm.

Double blocking of carbon metabolism causes a large increase of Calvin-Benson cycle compounds in cyanobacteria.

Carbon-flow-regulator A (CfrA) adapts carbon flux to nitrogen conditions in nondiazotrophic cyanobacteria. Under nitrogen deficiency, CfrA leads to the storage of excess carbon, which cannot combine with nitrogen, mainly as glycogen. cfrA overexpression from the arsenite-inducible, nitrogen-independent ParsB promoter allows analysis of the metabolic effects of CfrA accumulation. Considering that the main consequence of cfrA overexpression is glycogen accumulation, we examined carbon distribution in response to cfrA expression in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 strains impaired in synthesizing this polymer. We carried out a comparative phenotypic analysis to evaluate cfrA overexpression in the wild-type strain and in a mutant of ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (ΔglgC), which is unable to synthesize glycogen. The accumulation of CfrA in the wild-type background caused a photosynthetic readjustment although growth was not affected. However, in a ΔglgC strain, growth decreased depending on CfrA accumulation and photosynthesis was severely affected. An elemental analysis of the H, C, and N content of cells revealed that cfrA expression in the wild-type caused an increase in the C/N ratio, due to decreased nitrogen assimilation. Metabolomic study indicated that these cells store sucrose and glycosylglycerol, in addition to the previously described glycogen accumulation. However, cells deficient in glycogen synthesis accumulated large amounts of Calvin-Benson cycle intermediates as cfrA was expressed. These cells also showed increased levels of some amino acids, mainly alanine, serine, valine, isoleucine, and leucine. The findings suggest that by controlling cfrA expression, in different conditions and strains, we could change the distribution of fixed carbon, with potential biotechnological benefits.

Exogenous abscisic acid (ABA) improves the filling process of maize grains at different ear positions by promoting starch accumulation and regulating hormone levels under high planting density

BackgroundHigher planting densities typically cause a decline in grain weight, limiting the potential for high maize yield. Additionally, variations in grain filling occur at different positions within the maize ear. Abscisic acid (ABA) is important for grain filling and regulates grain weight. However, the effects of exogenous ABA on the filling process of maize grains at different ear positions under high planting density are poorly understood. In this study, two summer maize hybrids (DengHai605 (DH605) and ZhengDan958 (ZD958)) commonly grown in China were used to examine the effects of ABA application during the flowering stage on grain filling properties, starch accumulation, starch biosynthesis associated enzyme activities, and hormone levels of maize grain (including inferior grain (IG) and superior grain (SG)) under high planting density.ResultsOur results showed that exogenous ABA significantly increased maize yield, primarily owing to a higher grain weight resulting from an accelerated grain filling rate relative to the control. There was no significant difference in yield between DH605 and ZD958 in the control and ABA treatments. Moreover, applying ABA promoted starch accumulation by raising the activities of sucrose synthase, ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase, granule-bound starch synthases, soluble starch synthase, and starch branching enzyme in grains. It also increased the levels of zeatin riboside, indole-3-acetic acid, and ABA and decreased the level of gibberellin in grains, resulting in more efficient grain filling. Notably, IG exhibited a less efficient filling process compared to SG, probably due to lower starch biosynthesis associated enzyme activities and an imbalance in hormone contents. Nevertheless, IG displayed greater sensitivity to exogenous ABA than SG, suggesting that appropriate cultural measures to improve IG filling may be a viable strategy to further increase maize yield.ConclusionsAccording to our results, spraying exogenous ABA could effectively improve grain filling properties, accelerate starch accumulation by increasing relevant enzyme activities, and regulate hormone levels in grains, resulting in higher grain weight and yield of maize under high planting density. Our findings offer more evidence for using exogenous hormones to improve maize yield under high planting density.

ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase genes are differentially regulated in sugar-dependent or -independent manners in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) fruit.

In early developing tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) fruit, starch accumulates at high levels and is used by various primary metabolites in ripening fruits. ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase is responsible for the first key step of starch biosynthesis. Although it has been reported that AgpL1 and AgpS1 isoforms are mainly expressed in early developing fruit, their regulatory mechanism has not been elucidated. The present study investigated the transcriptional response of AgpL1 and AgpS1 to various metabolizable sugars, nonmetabolizable sugar analogues, hexokinase inhibitors and proline by an experimental system using half-cut fruits. AgpL1 was upregulated in response to sucrose and constituted hexoses such glucose, whereas the AgpS1 gene almost did not exhibit a prominent sugar response. Further analyses revealed that other disaccharides such maltose and trehalose did not show a remarkable effect on both AgpL1 and AgpS1 expressions. These results indicate that there are two distinct regulatory mechanisms, namely, sugar metabolism-dependent and -independent, for the regulation of AGPase gene expression. Interestingly, the ADP treatment, a hexokinase inhibitors, cancelled the sugar response of AgpL1, indicating that hexokinase-mediated sugar signaling should be involved in the sugar response of AgpL1. These results suggest that sugar-dependent (AgpL1) and sugar-independent (AgpS1) pathways coordinatively regulate starch biosynthesis in immature tomato fruit.

Emerging Insights into the Roles of the Rhizome-Culm System in Bamboo Shoot Development through Analysis of Non-Structural Carbohydrate Changes.

Non-structural carbohydrates (NSCs) required for bamboo shoot development, the critical stage that determines the yield of a bamboo stand, originate from the parent bamboo with the complex underground system. However, the metabolic mechanism of NSCs in the rhizome-culm system during bamboo shoot development remains unclear. In this study, we focused on the changes of NSCs in the rhizome-culm system and used anatomical, physiological, and biochemical methods to investigate the metabolism of NSCs in bamboo shoots of Phyllostachys edulis and the role of NSCs supply in the parent bamboo at different ages. The results showed that NSCs were accumulated and consumed from the bottom to the top in a bamboo shoot, which was consistent with the developmental pattern. The starch granules were stored in advance. The bamboo sheath stored starch from the dormant stage of shoot buds. The functions of culms and rhizomes showed age-dependent differences. Adult culms showed the highest capacity to provide NSCs, with more stored NSCs and higher β-amylase activity. Conversely, young culms seemed to prefer their growth, while old culms tended to store starch. Accordingly, adult rhizomes preferred sugar transport due to the lowest starch storage, lower ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase) activity, and higher β-amylase activity, while young and old rhizomes tended to prefer starch storage. These results provide a basis for further understanding of nutrient metabolism in bamboo stands.

Synthetic bacterial community derived from Astragalus mongholicus and plant-plant interactions inhibit cadmium uptake by modulating gene expression, antioxidant system and carbohydrate metabolism under cadmium contaminated soil

In this study we evaluated an alternative strategy to inhibit cadmium (Cd) uptake with synthetic bacterial community (SynCom) in cereal-legume intercropping under Cd contaminated soil. The results exhibited that intercropping coupled with SynCom inoculation promoted wheat biomass and inhibits Cd uptake in shoot (−65.05%), root (−34.66%) and grain (−74.45%) over monoculture without inoculation under Cd stress. However, antioxidant enzyme activities were significantly increased with SynCom inoculation in wheat grown on Cd contaminated soil irrespective of intercropping. SynCom inoculation considerably increased cytoplasmic invertase, vacuolar invertase, hexokinase, phosphoglucoisomerase, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, phosphofructokinase and SuSy while decreased the activities of ADP-Glucose pyrophosphorylase, aldolase, fructokinase, phosphoglucomutase and UDP-glucose pyrophorylase irrespective of intercropping under Cd stress. Furthermore, the expressions of gene encoding heavy metal stress were significantly decreased with the SynCom inoculation in roots. The expression of TaHMA3-b in root was downregulated by SynCom inoculation in wheat grown under Cd stress. The expressions of gene encoding heavy metal stress in shoot were downregulated by SynCom inoculation over other treatments. These findings not only offered useful information for future study of interaction mechanisms between intercropping and SynCom inoculation, but also demonstrated a suitable technological approach for remediation coupled with agro-production in mildly to substantially Cd polluted soil.

An integrated physiology and proteomics analysis reveals the response of wheat grain to low temperature stress during booting

The low temperature (LT) in spring has become one of the principal abiotic stresses that restrict the growth and development of wheat. Diverse analyses were performed to investigate the mechanism underlying the response of wheat grain development to LT stress during booting. These included morphological observation, measurements of starch synthase activity, and determination of amylose and amylopectin content of wheat grain after exposure to treatment with LT during booting. Additionally, proteomic analysis was performed using tandem mass tags (TMT). The results showed that the plumpness of wheat grains decreased after LT stress. Moreover, the activities of sucrose synthase (SuS, EC 2.4.1.13) and ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase, EC 2.7.7.27) exhibited a significant reduction, leading to a significant reduction in the contents of amylose and amylopectin. A total of 509 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were identified by proteomics analysis. The GO enrichment analysis showed that the protein difference multiple in the nutritional repository activity was the largest among the molecular functions, and the up-regulated seed storage protein (SSP) played an active role in the response of grains to LT stress and subsequent damage. The KEGG enrichment analysis showed that LT stress reduced the expression of DEPs such as sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS), glucose-1-phosphate adenosine transferase (glgC), and β-fructofuranosidase (FFase) in sucrose and starch metabolic pathways, thus affecting the synthesis of grain starch. In addition, many heat shock proteins (HSPs) were found in the protein processing in the endoplasmic reticulum pathways, which can resist some damage caused by LT stress. These findings provide a new theoretical foundation for elucidating the underlying mechanism governing wheat yield development after exposure to LT stress in spring.

Effects of 6-Benzyladenine (6-BA) on the Filling Process of Maize Grains Placed at Different Ear Positions under High Planting Density.

Increasing grain weight under dense planting conditions can further improve maize yield. 6-BA is known to be involved in regulating grain development and influencing grain weight. Maize grain development is closely linked to starch accumulation and hormone levels. In this work, the effects of applying 6-BA at the flowering stage under high density on the grain filling characteristics, starch content, starch synthesis critical enzyme activity, and endogenous hormones levels of maize grains (including inferior grains (IGs) and superior grains (SGs)) of two high-yielding summer maize varieties widely cultivated in China were investigated. The findings indicated that applying 6-BA significantly improved maize yield compared to the control, mainly as a result of increased grain weight due to a faster grain filling rate. Additionally, the activities of enzymes associated with starch synthesis, including sucrose synthase (SuSy), ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase), granule-bound starch synthase (GBSS), soluble starch synthase (SSS), and starch branching enzyme (SBE), were all increased following 6-BA application, thus facilitating starch accumulation in the grains. Applying 6-BA also increased the zeatin riboside (ZR), indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), and abscisic acid (ABA) levels, and reduced the gibberellin (GA3) level in the grains, which further improved grain filling. It is worth noting that IG had a poorer filling process than SG, possibly due to the low activities of critical enzymes for starch synthesis and imbalanced endogenous hormones levels. However, IG responded more strongly to exogenous 6-BA than SG. It appears that applying 6-BA is beneficial in improving filling characteristics, promoting starch accumulation by enhancing the activities of critical enzymes for starch synthesis, and altering endogenous hormones levels in the grains, thus improving grain filling and increasing the final grain weight and yield of maize grown under crowded conditions. These results provide theoretical and technical support for the further utilization of exogenous hormones in high-density maize production.

Disruptions of sugar utilization and carbohydrate metabolism in rice developing anthers aggravated heat stress-induced pollen abortion

High temperature (HT) stress at reproductive stage is one of most important environment negatively affecting spikelet fertility and rice yield. In this study, the effect of HT exposure on the sugar composition and carbohydrate metabolism in developing anthers and its relation to floret fertility and pollen viability were investigated by different temperature regimes under well-controlled climatic condition. Result showed that HT exposure during microspore development significantly reduced the starch deposition in developing anther and evidently disrupted the spatial distribution of sugar and starch concentrations in different compartments of rice anther, with the higher ratio of sucrose to hexose concentrations in HT-stressed anthers relative to the control ones. Under HT exposure, the amount of starch deposition in the fraction of sporophytic tissues dropped evidently, while the concentrations of sucrose and starch in anther wall tissue enhanced significantly, suggesting that HT exposure impaired the translocation of sucrose from the anther wall tissue to the sporophytic tissues inside rice anther. Furthermore, we presented possible contribution of various genes and key enzymes involving in sugar conversion and carbohydrate metabolism in developing anther to the formation of HT-induced pollen abortion by disrupting the sugar utilization in HT-stressed anther. HT exposure suppressed the activities of cell wall and vacuolar invertase, hexokinase, and ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase in developing anther, while it was opposite for the effect of HT exposure on sucrose synthase and fructokinase. HT-induced suppression of OsCWIN3 in the anther walls might be strongly responsible for the HT-induced impairments of sugar utilization in HT-stressed anthers.

A critical inter-subunit interaction for the transmission of the allosteric signal in the Agrobacterium tumefaciens ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase.

ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase is a key regulatory enzyme involved in starch and glycogen synthesis in plants and bacteria, respectively. It has been hypothesized that inter-subunit communications are important for the allosteric effect in this enzyme. However, no specific interactions have been identified as part of the regulatory signal. The enzyme from Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a homotetramer allosterically regulated by fructose 6-phosphate and pyruvate. Three pairs of distinct subunit-subunit interfaces are present. Here we focus on an interface that features two symmetrical interactions between Arg11 and Asp141 from one subunit with residues Asp141 and Arg11 of the neighbor subunit, respectively. Previously, scanning mutagenesis showed that a mutation at the Arg11 position disrupted the activation of the enzyme. Considering the distance of these residues from the allosteric and catalytic sites, we hypothesized that the interaction between Arg11 and Asp141 is critical for allosteric signaling rather than effector binding. To prove our hypothesis, we mutated those two sites (D141A, D141E, D141N, D141R, R11D, and R11K) and performed kinetic and binding analysis. Mutations that altered the charge affected the regulation the most. To prove that the interaction per se (rather than the presence of specific residues) is critical, we partially rescued the R11D protein by introducing a second mutation (R11D/D141R). This could not restore the activator effect on kcat , but it did rescue the effect on substrate affinity. Our results indicate the critical functional role of Arg11 and Asp141 to relay the allosteric signal in this subunit interface.

Unveiling the Impact of Different Nitrogen Fertilizer Levels on Rice’s Eating Quality through Metabolite Evaluation

We investigated the variations in metabolites associated with the quality of rice consumption when exposed to varying nitrogen fertilizer levels, as well as the regulatory role of pivotal metabolites within metabolic pathways. This research employed Hongyang 5 as the subject of experimentation, examining the metabolites of Hongyang 5 at three different nitrogen levels using non-targeted metabonomic analysis. The findings indicated that the overall assessment of the eating quality/palatability (CEQ) and amylose contents (AC) of Low nitrogen (D1: 180 kg·ha−1) was notably greater than that of Medium nitrogen (D2: 270 kg·ha−1) and High nitrogen (D3: 315 kg·ha−1). Conversely, the amylopectin (APC), total starch (SC), and protein contents (AP) of D1 were remarkably lower than those observed in D2 and D3. The starch debranching enzyme (DBE) and granule-bound starch synthetase (GBSS) of D1 were remarkably higher than those of D2 and D3. The soluble starch synthase (SSS) of D1 was the lowest. The ADP-glucose pyro-phosphorylase (AGP) and starch branching enzyme (SBE) of D3 were remarkably higher than that of D1 and D2. We identified 76 differential metabolites (DMs) between D1 and D2 (20 up-regulated and 56 down-regulated). A total of 88 DMs were identified between D3 and D1 (42 up-regulated and 46 down-regulated). A total of 57 DMs were identified between D3 and D2. Most of the DMs related to rice-eating quality were involved in the lipid metabolic pathway and amino acid metabolic pathway. The essential metabolites within the metabolic pathway are classified as lipid metabolites and are (13(S)-hydroperoxylinolenic acid, PGB2, 3-phosphocholine, 7-epijasmonic acid, 20-carboxyleukotriene B4 and 11-dehydro-thromboxane B2), amino acid metabolites (4-guanidinobutanoic acid, (3R, 5S)-1-pyrroline-3-hydroxy-5-carboxylic acid, citric acid, (S)-2-Acetolactate, L-glutamine, L-2, 4-aminobutyric acid and putrescine). These key metabolites may be affected by nitrogen fertilizer conditions and play critical regulatory roles in the metabolic pathway, resulting in differences in rice eating quality.

Effects of Irrigation and Fertilization Management on Yield and Quality of Rice and the Establishment of a Quality Evaluation System

Yield and rice quality indicators of crops are a direct reflection of the rational irrigation and fertilizer strategy. However, the effects of controlled irrigation (CI) combined with the split application of fertilization managements (straw returning, organic fertilizer, and conventional fertilizer) on rice quality are not clear in southeast China. This study aims at exploring the effects of three fertilization managements applied under CI or flooding irrigation on rice yield, quality, enzyme activity, and soluble sugar content including 43 indicators, to determine the optimal comprehensive evaluation model, management, and representative indexes. The results showed that compared with CF (CI + conventional fertilizer), CS (CI + straw returning) significantly increased yield (27.65%), irrigation water use efficiency (6.20%), chalky grain rate (9.67%), chalkiness (1.83%), protein content (4.29%), and amylose content (0.33%), indicating that CS improved yield and milling quality but decreased cooking and appearance quality. This was mainly because CS promoted the activities of alpha-amylase, ADPG (ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase), and GBSS (granule-bound starch synthase) and reduced the soluble sugar content in rice. Grey relational degree analysis (GRD), the entropy method (ETM), and TOPSIS (the technique for order preference by similarity to an ideal solution) were used to comprehensively evaluate the rice quality and determined that CS treatments could synergistically improve yield and rice quality. The five indexes (adhesive strength, HPV, ADPG, soluble sugar (leaf), yield) and TOPSIS model can be used as the best indexes and model to evaluate the rice quality. These results could provide scientific management and evaluate practices for high-yield and high-quality rice cultivation, which may be promising for a cleaner production strategy.

Abscisic Acid Regulates Carbohydrate Metabolism, Redox Homeostasis and Hormonal Regulation to Enhance Cold Tolerance in Spring Barley.

Abscisic acid (ABA) plays a vital role in the induction of low temperature tolerance in plants. To understand the molecular basis of this phenomenon, we performed a proteomic analysis on an ABA-deficit mutant barley (Az34) and its wild type (cv Steptoe) under control conditions (25/18 °C) and after exposure to 0 °C for 24 h. Most of the differentially abundant proteins were involved in the processes of photosynthesis and metabolisms of starch, sucrose, carbon, and glutathione. The chloroplasts in Az34 leaves were more severely damaged, and the decrease in Fv/Fm was larger in Az34 plants compared with WT under low temperature. Under low temperature, Az34 plants possessed significantly higher activities of ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase, fructokinase, monodehydroascorbate reductase, and three invertases, but lower UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase activity than WT. In addition, concentrations of proline and soluble protein were lower, while concentration of H2O2 was higher in Az34 plants compared to WT under low temperature. Collectively, the results indicated that ABA deficiency induced modifications in starch and sucrose biosynthesis and sucrolytic pathway and overaccumulation of reactive oxygen species were the main reason for depressed low temperature tolerance in barley, which provide novel insights to the response of barley to low temperature under future climate change.

Starch deficiency in tomato causes transcriptional reprogramming that modulates fruit development, metabolism and stress responses.

Tomato fruit (Solanum lycopersicum) store carbon as starch during early development and mobilize it at the onset of ripening. Starch accumulation has been suggested to buffer fluctuations in carbon supply to the fruit under abiotic stress, and contribute to sugar levels in ripe fruit. However, the role of starch accumulation and metabolism during fruit development is still unclear. Here we show that the tomato mutant adpressa (adp) harbors a mutation in a gene encoding the small subunit of ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase), which abolishes starch synthesis. The disruption of starch biosynthesis causes major transcriptional and metabolic remodeling in adp fruit but only minor effects on fruit size and ripening. Changes in gene expression and metabolite profiles indicate that the lack of carbon flow into starch increases levels of soluble sugars during fruit growth, triggers a readjustment of central carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, and activates growth and stress protection pathways. Accordingly, adp fruits are remarkably resistant to blossom-end rot, a common physiological disorder induced by environmental stress. Our results provide insights into the effects of perturbations of carbohydrate metabolism on tomato fruit development, with potential implications for the enhancement of protective mechanisms against abiotic stress in fleshy fruit.

Diurnal Regulation of Leaf Photosynthesis Is Related to Leaf-Age-Dependent Changes in Assimilate Accumulation in Camellia oleifera.

In order to clarify the mechanism of diurnal changes in photosynthesis of leaves of different leaf ages in Camellia oleifera, current-year leaves (CLs) and annual leaves (ALs) were used as the test materials to analyze the diurnal changes in photosynthetic parameters, assimilate contents and enzyme activities, as well as structural differences and expression levels of sugar transport regulating genes. The rate of net photosynthesis in CLs and ALs was highest in the morning. During the day, there was a decrease in the CO2 assimilation rate, and this decrease was greater in ALs than in CLs at midday. The maximal efficiency of photosystem II (PSII) photochemistry (Fv/Fm) showed a decreasing trend as the sunlight intensity increased, but no significant difference between CLs and ALs was found. Compared with CLs, ALs showed a greater decrease in the carbon export rate at midday and the levels of sugars and starch increased significantly in ALs, accompanied by higher enzyme activity of sucrose synthetase and ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase. In addition, compared with CLs, ALs had a larger leaf vein area and higher leaf vein density, as well as higher expression levels of sugar transport regulating genes during the day. It is concluded that the excessive accumulation of assimilate is an important factor contributing to the midday depression of photosynthesis in Camellia oleifera annual leaves on a sunny day. Sugar transporters may play an important regulatory role in excessive accumulation of assimilate in leaves.

Exploiting AGPase genes and encoded proteins to prioritize development of optimum engineered strains in microalgae towards sustainable biofuel production.

Although ADP glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase), with two large subunits (ls) and two small subunits (ss), is a promising knockout target for increasing the neutral lipid content, the details regarding the sequence-structure features and their distribution within metabolic system in microalgae is rather limited. Against this backdrop, a comprehensive genome-wide comparative analysis on 14 sequenced microalgal genomes was performed. For the first time the heterotetrameric structure of the enzyme and the interaction of the catalytic unit with the substrate was also studied. Novel findings of the present study includes:(i) at the DNA level, the genes controlling the ss are more conserved than those controlling the ls; the variation in both the gene groups is mainly due to exon number, exon length and exon phase distribution; (ii) at protein level, the ss genes are more conserved relative to those for ls;(III) three putative key consensus sequences 'LGGGAGTRLYPLTKNRAKPAV', 'WFQGTADAV' and 'ASMGIYVFRKD' were ubiquitously conserved in all the AGPases; (iv) molecular dynamics investigations revealed thatthe modeled AGPase heterotetrameric structure, from oleaginous algae Chlamydomonas reinharditii, was completely stable in real time environment; (v) The binding interfaces of catalytic unit, ssAGPase, from C. reinharditii with α-D-glucose 1-phosphate(αGP) was also analyzed. The results of the present study have provided system-based insights into the structure-function of the genes and encoded proteins, which provided clues for exploitation of variability in these genes that, could be further utilized to design site-specific mutagenic experiments for engineering of microalgal strains towards sustainable development of biofuel.