Adoption Of Sustainable Management Practices Research Articles

An assessment of the environmental sustainability of beef production in Canada

This study assessed the environmental impacts of beef cattle production and their effects on the overall sustainability of Canadian beef production. Cradle to farm gate, cradle to processor’s gate, and cradle to consumer plate life cycle assessments were carried out to quantify greenhouse gases (GHG), resource use (i.e., water, land, and fuel), and potential water and air pollution (i.e., freshwater eutrophication, terrestrial acidification, and photochemical oxidants formation). Across the production chain, feed production had the greatest impact on most environmental indicators. The GHG intensity without dairy meat was estimated as 10.4 kg CO2-eq per kg of live weight (LW), corresponding to 32.8 kg CO2-eq per kg of consumed boneless beef. Including dairy meat reduced GHG intensity by 5.8% (0.6 kg CO2-eq kg LW–1) compared to when it was excluded. Other environmental metrics per kg of LW were 657 L, 38.7 m2 annual crop-eq, 0.4 kg oil-eq, 2.6 kg P-eq, 115.9 kg SO2-eq, and 8.7 kg NOx-eq for water use, land use, fossil fuel use, freshwater eutrophication, terrestrial acidification, and photochemical oxidants, respectively. Data provide benchmarks for use in future regional and national assessments that are designed to encourage the adoption of sustainable management practices that can lower the environmental footprint of Canadian beef production.

Modeling Climate Regulation of Arable Soils in Northern Saxony under the Influence of Climate Change and Management Practices

One approach to increasing the climate-regulating potential of the agricultural sector is carbon sequestration in agricultural soils. This involves storing atmospheric carbon dioxide in the soil in the form of soil organic carbon (SOC) through agricultural management practices (AMPs). Model simulations of area-specific current and future SOC stocks can be used to test appropriate AMPs. In this study, the CANDY Carbon Balance (CCB) model was used to determine how different AMPs could affect SOC stocks in a study area in northern Saxony, Germany. Specifically, we used scenarios with different intensities of sustainable AMPs to assess the potential effects of reduced tillage, crop cultivation, and fertilizer management, as well as the management of crop residues and by-products. The analysis was carried out for the simulation period 2020–2070, with and without consideration of climate change effects. The results showed an average carbon sequestration potential of 5.13–7.18 t C ha−1 for the whole study area, depending on the intensity of AMP implemented. While higher intensities of sustainable AMP implementation generally had a positive impact on carbon sequestration, the scenario with the highest implementation intensity only led to the second highest gains in SOC stocks. The most important factor in increasing SOC stocks was reduced tillage, which resulted in a carbon sequestration potential of 0.84 t C ha−1 by 2070. However, reduced application rates of fertilizers also proved to be critical, resulting in a reduction in carbon stocks of up to 2.2 t C ha−1 by 2070. Finally, the application of high-intensity sustainable AMPs was shown to be able to offset the negative impacts of an intermediate climate change scenario for most of the simulation period. Overall, the results not only confirmed existing knowledge on the effects of AMPs on carbon sequestration for a specific case study area, but also identified future management scenarios that stress the need for widespread adoption of sustainable management practices under changing climate conditions.

Smallholder oil palm plantation sustainability assessment using multi-criteria analysis and unmanned aerial vehicles

Oil palm agriculture has caused extensive land cover and land use changes that have adversely affected tropical landscapes and ecosystems. However, monitoring and assessment of oil palm plantation areas to support sustainable management is costly and labour-intensive. This study used an unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) to map smallholder farms and applied multi-criteria analysis to data generated from orthomosaics, to provide a set of sustainability indicators for the farms. Images were acquired from a UAV, with structure from motion (SfM) photogrammetry then used to produce orthomosaics and digital elevation models of the farm areas. Some of the inherent problems using high spatial resolution imagery for land cover classification were overcome by using texture analysis and geographic object-based image analysis (OBIA). Six spatially explicit environmental metrics were developed using multi-criteria analysis and used to generate sustainability indicator layers from the UAV data. The SfM and OBIA approach provided an accurate, high-resolution (~5 cm) image-based reconstruction of smallholder farm landscapes, with an overall classification accuracy of 89%. The multi-criteria analysis highlighted areas with lower sustainability values, which should be considered targets for adoption of sustainable management practices. The results of this work suggest that UAVs are a cost-effective tool for sustainability assessments of oil palm plantations, but there remains the need to plan surveys and image processing workflows carefully. Future work can build on our proposed approach, including the use of additional and/or alternative indicators developed through consultation with the oil palm industry stakeholders, to support certification schemes such as the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO).

Sustainable Management Practices and Stakeholder Pressure: A Systematic Literature Review

This paper aims to summarize and analyze what is known regarding the ways in which stakeholder pressure may influence sustainable practices. Furthermore, this study extends this understanding to the development of several research opportunities for further investigation. A systematic extensive literature review was performed to investigate the relationship between stakeholder pressure and sustainable management practices. This literature review shows that organizational factors are more widely covered than the individual and macro-level factors as moderating variables, and suggests more organizational-, individual-, and macro-level factors, as well as the interaction of these factors as moderating variables on the link between stakeholder pressure and sustainable management practices. Furthermore, the use of the stakeholder theory is dominant, followed by the use of the institutional theory. The manufacturing sector is widely covered, survey methodology is extensively used, and the environmental dimensions are more addressed than the social dimensions of sustainability. The relationship between stakeholder pressure and the adoption of sustainable management practices is not obvious, due to the varied results. Therefore, it is difficult to establish a direct relationship between stakeholder pressure and the adoption of sustainable management practices. This study furthers insight into the stakeholder pressure influence on sustainable management practices by reviewing the comprehensive literature and suggesting future research opportunities.

The impact of crop diversification, tillage and fertilization type on soil total microbial, fungal and bacterial abundance: A worldwide meta-analysis of agricultural sites

Microorganisms play a key role in nutrient cycling in agriculture and can contribute to improve soil quality and enhance crop production. Thus, there is a need to identify the most suitable management practices which foster increases in soil microbial biomass and diversity. A meta-analysis was performed to assess changes in microbial abundance in agricultural soils affected by: (i) management practices (tillage, fertilization and crop diversification); and (ii) environmental factors, including climate characteristics and soil properties. The scope of the meta-analysis was to evaluate whether microbial abundances are affected or not by organic fertilization or no fertilization, crop diversification (intercropping and crop rotations) and conservation tillage (reduced tillage/no-tillage) as an alternative to intensive conventional monocultures in agriculture. Only papers showing data on phospholipid fatty acids (PLFAs), providing indicators about soil microbial (total PLFA), fungal and bacterial biomass reached a critical mass to perform the meta-analysis. Therefore, soil microbial diversity could not be analyzed considering different management practices. Results showed that intercropping and crop rotations only significantly increased the abundance of fungi, with the corresponding increase in the fungal-to-bacterial ratio. Organic fertilization contributed to significant increases in bacterial and fungal abundance and total PLFA compared to mineral fertilization. Contrarily, the lack of fertilization negatively affected total PLFA, with no significant effect on bacterial and fungal abundances. Reduced tillage significantly increased total PLFA, fungal and bacterial abundances compared to conventional tillage, while no tillage had only a positive effect on fungi. Thus, as a general pattern, the adoption of sustainable management practices, mostly organic fertilization and reduced tillage, has overall positive effects on soil total microbial, fungal and bacterial abundance. These variables were not related to soil physicochemical properties and climatic factors, suggesting a positive global effect of sustainable management practices on soil microbial abundances. Thus, this study shows new insights by a meta-analysis of global studies about the effect of sustainable management practices on soil microbial abundances, needed for land-managers, policy-makers and farmers to select sustainable cropping systems that enhance microbial abundance.

Furrow-irrigated corn residue management and tillage strategies for improved soil health

Conversion from conventional tillage to no-till in surface irrigated agroecosystems is low, mostly due to difficulties crop residue creates for water surface flow if no-till is implemented. A three-year continuous corn (Zea mays L.) study was conducted to evaluate the effects of residue management (retained yet mechanically moved out of the irrigation furrow, grazed, or baled/removed) and tillage (conventional tillage versus no-till) on soil health as verified using the Soil Management Assessment Framework. After three years of implementation, corn yields were 15% greater under no-till as compared to conventional tillage (13.1 versus 11.4 t ha−1), and followed the order baled (13.6 t ha−1) > grazed (12.5 t ha−1) > retained (10.6 t ha−1). In terms of corn residue management, soil health followed stover grazed = stover retained > stover baled/removed, a function of lower salts and greater plant-available K, beta-glucosidase activity, potentially mineralizable N, and microbial biomass C present – a result of greater water-stable aggregates and grazing’s influence on K and organic inputs. Reduced soil physical health was associated with a short-term increase in bulk density under no-till, while improved soil chemical health was associated with reductions in soil salts under no-till. Greater soil biological health was noted in the soil surface with no-till, due to greater beta-glucosidase activity, microbial biomass C, and a slight increase in soil organic C; the opposite was found with conventional tillage and soil depth. However, when combining the above observations, greater overall soil health was observed in the upper soil as associated with no-till as compared to conventional tillage; subsoil had greater overall soil health associated with conventional tillage. Understanding the importance of crop residue utilization in conjunction with no-till practices in surface irrigated agroecosystems can influence the adoption of sustainable management practices and should directly contribute to long-term soil health improvements and agroecosystem sustainability.

The Determinants of Sustainable Management in Organizations

Why is there such great heterogeneity in the adoption of sustainable management practices by firms? Drawing on previous research in the locus of performance literature, we use variance partitioning methods to analyze the factors which most contribute to explaining the variation in Environment, Social, and Governance (ESG) performance. Our findings show that firm effects and CEO effects are strong determinants in all circumstances, but disaggregation of the multidimensional ESG construct shifts the saliency of the factors significantly. Our research contributes to understanding the complexities of the antecedents of sustainable management by organizations.

Spectral patterns in the mid-ir of soils in the northeast of Brazil and their relation to the taxonomic classification

Knowing particularities of soils allows the adoption of sustainable management practices. The most efficient method to obtain data on the soil is through its characterization, essential for planning land use and soil conservation. However, soil surveys conducted in the conventional methods are costly and time-consuming. This study aimed to identify spectral patterns in the mid-IR wavelengths for a quick and low cost characterization of soil classes. Soils from the Natuba river basin, Pernambuco State, Brazil, were used. These soils were mapped on a scale of 1:25,000, where the presence of Latossolos, Argissolos, Gleissolos and Neossolos were identified. The data of reflectance for profiles of each soil class were collected using the spectral range between 2,500 and 25,000 nm. In the mid-IR region, Latossolos and Argissolos presented spectral characteristics peculiar to classification criteria. The increased contents of organic matter and iron oxides reduced soil reflectance. The horizons with sand content above 80% showed strong absorption spectra and significant reflectance peaks of quartz in the mid-IR. The wavelengths 2,681, 2,600 and 2,495 cm-1 occurred only in these horizons. The spectral analysis presented as a high-potential method for the characterization and classification of soils.Keywords: spectral patterns, reflectance, soil absorption features, organic matter, iron oxide

Adoption and Dis-Adoption of Sustainable Agriculture: A Case of Farmers’ Innovations and Integrated Fruit Fly Management in Kenya

The invasive fruit fly Bactrocera dorsalis poses a major threat to the production and trade of mango in sub-Saharan Africa. Farmers devise different innovations to manage the pest in an attempt to minimize yield loss and production costs while maximizing revenues. Using survey data obtained from Embu County, Kenya, we analyzed farmers’ knowledge and perception as regards the invasive fruit fly, their innovations for the management of the pest, and the determinants of their adoption and dis-adoption decisions of recently developed and promoted integrated pest management (IPM) technologies for suppression of the pest. The results show that farmers consider fruit flies as a major threat to mango production (99%) and primarily depend on pesticides (90%) for the management of the pest. Some farmers (35%) however use indigenous methods to manage the pest. Though farmers possess good knowledge of different IPM strategies, uptake is relatively low. The regression estimates show that continued use of IPM is positively associated with the gender and education of the household head, size of a mango orchard, knowledge on mango pests, training, contact with an extension officer, and use of at least one non-pesticide practice for fruit fly management, while IPM dis-adoption was negatively correlated with the size of the mango orchard, practice score and use of indigenous innovations for fruit fly management. We recommend enhancing farmer′s knowledge through increased access to training programs and extension services for enhanced adoption of sustainable management practices for B. dorsalis.

Sustainable management practices and innovation capacity in family agribusinesses

AbstractSustainability and innovation have gained increasing importance in the competitive landscape of organizations. Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the relationships between the adoption of sustainable management practices and innovation capacity in family agribusinesses certified by the Family Agribusiness Program. To this end, a quantitative study using a survey design was carried out with 128 certified Brazilian family agribusinesses. Sustainable management practices were assessed based on the models proposed by Global Reporting Initiative and Callado. Regarding innovation capacity, the study by Valladares was used as a basis. Homals analysis (homogeneity analysis) was used for data analysis. The results showed that the family agribusinesses analyzed that have a high adoption of environmental practices consisting of transformative leaderships that inspire, encourage, and develop people and promote the involvement and cooperation of their employees, high organicity of the organizational structure that allows quick decision‐making and open and transparent communication, and a management for people that allows adequate working conditions, training, and professional recognition.

The importance of social capital in the adoption of sustainable management practices of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in Cameroon

Resume Le caractere de ressources renouvelable des produits forestiers non ligneux (PFNL) est une opportunite pour les perenniser. La plupart des travaux sur le capital social s’accordent sur ses effets positifs : il facilite la coordination des agents et semble etre une condition de developpement. Cette etude analyse l’effet du capital social dans l’adoption de pratiques de gestion durables des PFNL par les menages de la foret communautaire au Cameroun. L’etude a utilise des donnees primaires collectees aupres d’un echantillon stratifie de 60 menages ruraux de la FC de Morikouali-ye dans la Region de l’Est Cameroun et un modele Probit pour les estimations. Les resultats montrent que, 67% des menages enquetes percoivent le niveau de degradation des PFNL dans la FC au fur et a mesure que le temps passe et sont pres a 74% pour adoption des pratiques de gestion durable des PFNL : la domestication, la gestion durable de la FC, l’interdiction d’abattage des arbres et du deracinement des plantes, etc. L’estimation du modele Probit montre que sexe et le capital social a travers la confiance, la solidarite l’inclusion sociale et la cooperation influencent positivement et significativement la probabilite des menages de la FC a adopter des pratiques de gestion durable des PFNL. Nos resultats suggerent au menages d’etre animes d’un esprit de solidarite et de cooperation et ne plus se laisser aller a un jeu de concurrence pour une gestion durable des PFNL dans leur FC. En outre, l’adoption de ces pratiques de collecte durable pourrait renforcer les liens qui existent entre eux, favoriser la prise de decisions collectives et assurer le revenu issu des PFNL dans le long terme. Mots cles: capital social, confiance, foret communautaire, produits forestier non ligneux, Probit, solidarite. Abstract The nature of renewable resources of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is an opportunity to make them sustainable. Most of the work on social capital agrees on its positive effects: it contribute to the agent’s coordination and seems to be a condition for development. This study analyzes the social capital effect in the adoption of sustainable management practices of NTFPs by households in the community forest in Cameroon. The study used primary data collected from a stratified sample of 60 rural households in Morikouali-ye FC in the Eastern Region of Cameroon and for estimation a Probit model. The results show that, as time passes 67% of the households surveyed perceive the level of degradation of NTFPs in the CF and are close to 74% of them agree for the adoption of sustainable management practices of NTFPs: domestication, sustainable management of the FC, the ban on cutting down trees and uprooting plants, etc. The Probit model estimate shows that gender and social capital through trust, solidarity, social inclusion and cooperation positively and significantly influence the likelihood of CF households to adopt sustainable NTFPs management practices. Our results suggest that households should be animated by a spirit of solidarity and cooperation and no longer indulge in a game of competition for a sustainable management of NTFPs in their CF. In addition, the adoption of these sustainable collection practices could strengthen the links that exist between them, promote collective decision-making and ensure income from NTFPs in the long term. Keywords: social capital, trust, community forest, non-timber forest products, Probit, solidarity.

Farmer perceptions of plant–soil interactions can affect adoption of sustainable management practices in cocoa agroforests: a case study from Southeast Sulawesi

Despite extensive research focused on increasing the sustainability and productivity of agricultural systems in the tropics, adoption rates of improved management solutions often remain low among smallholder farmers. To address this, we evaluated how local knowledge and perceptions influenced decision-making processes among smallholder cocoa farmers. We conducted individual semistructured interviews with 72 cocoa farmers in Southeast Sulawesi and documented local knowledge about soil fertility indicators, nutrient cycling processes, and the interactions among shade trees, cocoa trees, and soils in cocoa agroforests. We further collected data regarding farmers' fertilizer preferences, additional income sources, and perceived barriers to improved cocoa production. We found that farmers' understanding of biophysical interactions in Southeast Sulawesi was comprehensive, mostly accurately aligned with scientific literature, and sometimes provided additional complementary knowledge. Cocoa farmers in Southeast Sulawesi approached decision making in a holistic way, integrating personal observations, information from external sources, and socioeconomic limitations and priorities. This finding highlights the value of flexible conservation farming approaches that allow farmers to minimize trade-offs and prioritize their households' needs. Finally, we identify a dual knowledge gap on the part of farmers and scientists regarding the direct benefits of shade tree inclusion for improved yields and income security. Addressing this through further research and targeted knowledge dissemination could contribute to an increase in the long-term adoption rates of more sustainable cocoa cultivation practices.

Applying a cultural multilevel selection framework to the adoption of sustainable management practices in California viticulture

In light of the ongoing environmental impacts of agriculture, understanding farmer adoption of sustainable management practices (SMPs) is an important priority. Relatively little work in agricultural adoption has explicitly examined the multilevel dynamics of adoption decision-making. Yet because many SMPs involve cooperative dilemmas—they are individually costly but provide group benefits—understanding the dynamics of both individual and group level behavioral change is critical. In this paper, we argue that cultural evolutionary theory is well suited to examining the emergence and spread of cooperative SMPs, and we illustrate this claim by applying a cultural multilevel selection (CMLS) framework to the adoption of SMPs on the part of winegrape growers in California, USA. Using survey data from over 800 winegrape growers in 3 regions, we estimate the individual-level costs and group-level benefits of 44 different SMPs. We then relate this to variation in their adoption within and between winegrape growing regions to characterize the scope for cultural group selection of the various practices. We also identify a number of mechanisms that might plausibly explain the observed patterns of variation, including various forms of cultural group selection. We highlight the added value of this perspective with respect to the established approaches and outline the data requirements for researchers to conduct similar studies in other settings. Our results underscore the potential for a cultural evolutionary perspective to shed light on the multiscale mechanisms driving adoption of SMPs and, more generally, the promise of cultural evolutionary approaches to supplement existing analytical toolkits in sustainability science.

Adoption of environmental practices on construction sites

Abstract Sustainability on construction sites and its impacts on the environment have become increasingly relevant. Large quantities of materials, water and energy, among other resources of various types and origins, are consumed on construction sites during the production activities and by the temporary facilities. This paper aims at presenting a set of criteria for the adoption of sustainable management practices on construction sites aiming at mitigating environmental impacts produced during the construction phase. An in-depth case study was carried out on the new building of the Construction Chamber for the state of Bahia, Brazil. Different environmental impacts for each construction activity specific to the construction site were studied and an economic feasibility study of each solution was performed, followed by the implementation of these practices. Monitoring data was collected through checklists, indicators and periodic project management meetings. Participant observation and document analysis were also used as sources of evidence. The main findings refer to the identification of solutions, main difficulties in adopting such solutions, the development of indicators for monitoring low environmental impact on construction sites, as well as a set of recommendations for the deployment of sustainable practices on construction sites.

Soil carbon sequestration, carbon markets, and conservation agriculture practices: A hypothetical examination in Mozambique

Payments for Environmental Services (PES) are relatively novel mechanisms whereby the adoption of sustainable management practices by a stakeholder is rewarded by incentives linked to external markets. Adoption of PES for conservation agricultural practices (CAPS) by smallholder farmers may provide opportunities to increase household income or cover the technology costs of adoption if the carbon sequestration benefits of CAPS are quantifiable, adoption rates are accelerated and maintained, a mechanism exists whereby carbon sequestration services can be compensated, and carbon offset exchange markets are viable. This research suggests a methodology to examine a PES market for carbon offsets generated by the adoption of CAPS by farmers in Mozambique. Assuming a cumulative adoption of 60% over a 20-year period, revenue from PES market participation to CA adopters was two times higher than revenue earned when disadoption occurred midway through the simulation. Lower adoption targets are associated with higher per household returns when fertilizer rates typical to the region are increased. Establishing and maintaining a sustainable PES system in the study region would require significant investment in time and resources. The lack of on-the-ground institutions or local support for such a program would also challenge successful implementation. Finally, the programs where participant success depends on external markets, such as the hypothetical one suggested here, are subject to the ebb and flow of foreign demand for carbon offsets. Addressing these three broad constraints to a PES/CAPS program in the region would require grass-roots driven policy initiatives with buy-in at multiple social, economic, and political levels.

Sports tourism development and destination sustainability: the case of the coastal area of the Aveiro region, Portugal

ABSTRACTThere is increasing awareness of the importance of sustainability in sports tourism. Research in this field is nevertheless still limited and is mostly confined to specific areas such as mega-events. The adoption of sustainable management practices by companies offering sports tourism products has been widely neglected. This paper aims to extend previous research by analysing the adoption of sustainable management practices by small and medium enterprises offering sports tourism products, specifically across five sustainability dimensions – economic, sociocultural, environmental, policy, and technological. The methodological approach used in this study is qualitative in nature. A series of 15 face-to-face semi-structured interviews were conducted with company managers offering sports tourism activities in the coastal area of the Aveiro region in the centre of Portugal. The discourses were content-analysed and the findings reveal that these companies have already adopted certain sustainability management practices in the analysed dimensions. They are likely to hire local people, to establish some partnerships and work with other companies (e.g. accommodation providers), to limit the number of participants in each group in order to avoid exceeding the carrying capacity, to involve local communities to some extent, and to use biodegradable products (e.g. fuels). Nonetheless, much still has to be done to increase their sustainable practices. It is important, among other features, to promote the use of a wider variety of environmental and technological practices and to increase awareness both of the relevance of promoting linkages and of avoiding leakages, namely by buying local products. Moreover, it is important to take advantage of the strong potential of sports tourism concerning social cohesion. The paper also identifies a large range of sustainable management practices, covering the five aforementioned sustainability dimensions, which may be useful to the managers of sports tourism companies and for the sustainable development of sports tourism destinations.

The Adoption of Sustainable Management Practices by Mexican Coffee Producers

<p>In order to maintain optimal growing conditions on coffee plots, producers in Mexico are encouraged to renovate their stock of coffee trees, use fertilizer, implement soil conservation measures and manage shade levels. The adoption of these sustainable management practices (SMPs) by smallholder coffee growers has become an important rural development objective, especially as a way to overcome low yields, poverty and land degradation. However, adoption rates for SMPs remain below expected levels, a situation that potentially threatens the long- term viability of the coffee sector in Mexico. To better understand the choices made by producers, a multivariate probit technique was used which modelled the adoption of possibly interrelated SMPs using data from a survey of 119 coffee producers. The analysis reveals that adoption of SMPs is related to the size of coffee holdings, the socio-economic characteristics of producers and the role of social capital, the latter being a key factor in the overall adoption process. Surprisingly, government subsidies to coffee growers were not tied to higher adoption rates, suggesting the need for policy reforms in order to better facilitate the uptake of new practices. The results indicate that efforts aimed at strengthening local institutions and organizing coffee growers into producer associations could increase the adoption of SMPs in smallholder coffee systems.</p>

Impact of sustainable management policies on tourism companies' performance: the case of the metropolitan region of Madrid

The adoption of sustainable management practices is booming among service companies, whether due to pressure exerted by external agents or the internal perception that not being aligned with sustainability distances companies from clients and puts companies' long-term prospects at risk. However, few studies have examined the combined effect of implementing environmental management practices and corporate social responsibility practices in the tourism sector. By analysing two surveys conducted with the managers of 370 hotels and 176 restaurants and using structural equations, this study concludes that sustainability practices have a direct and significant impact on the company's competitiveness and on the companies' financial results. However, a separate study of the two surveys shows significant differences between the two analysed groups. This article suggests that despite operating in the same sector, hotels and restaurants behave differently regarding sustainability practices, and they achieve significantly different results in their implementation. In addition, by focusing on the tourism industry, a highly competitive sector, this analysis sheds light on whether investing in sustainability is a good strategy for companies to differentiate themselves and survive in complex sectors.

Environmental impacts of intensive deer farming in New Zealand - a review

The New Zealand deer industry is growing rapidly and the development of sustainable management practices for deer farming is becoming increasingly important. The main environmental issues facing the deer industry are the eff ects on soil and water quality, exacerba ted by the behaviour responses of deer to confinement (in particular fence pacing and wallowing). In addition, the projected increase in greenhouse gas emissions from deer farming from about 1.5% of the total emissions in 1990 to an estimated 7% in 2010 is of particular concern if the Kyoto Protocol is ratified. Although the potential effects of deer farming on the environment are well recognised, very little experimental work has qualified the extent of these impacts. The future of intensive deer farming in New Zealand will not only depend on the successful development of sustainable management practices, but also on the implementation and adoption of these practices, which will be influenced by the balance between the costs and the benefits to the New Zealand deer farmer. The development and adoption of sustainable management practices for deer farming requires quantification of rates of sediment, nutrient and faecal contaminant movement to waterways, the impact of soil compaction and greenhouse gas emissions, as well as an assessment of the economic implications. Keywords: deer farming, greenhouse gas emissions, nutrient losses, sediment losses, soil compaction, soil erosion, water quality

Sustainable management of hill land

One of the major environmental issues currently facing New Zealand is that of the sustainability of pastoral farming on North Island hill country. To be sustainable, a system must be resource conserving, environmentally compatible, socially supportive and commer-cially competitive. The Resource Management Act defines sustainable management as managing the use, development and protection of natural and physical resources in a way, or at a rate, which enables people and community to meet their needs without unduly compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. Evidence shows that at present this is not so for some hill country, for reasons of on-site land degradation and soil loss, and off-site sediment loading. Socioeconomic sustainability is also in doubt through deterioration in rural infrastructure and social services and steadily decreasing average returns for produce. In the long term there is no conflict between environmental and economic sustainability. The major conflict arises in the short term when the environmental needs of the community can conflict severely with the economic survival of the individual land holder. Adoption of sustainable management will require a much greater understanding of the dynamic interaction between land resources and land use practices and improved matching of land uses with inherent soil and climatic properties. A quantitative understanding of the relationship between biophysical stability of our land resources and their productive capability is required. This paper attempts to: (i) examine how biophysical indicators could be used to quantify the impact of current land use on the productive capability of our hill land resource, and in so doing identify several critical issues facing hill country farmers, and (ii) discuss some of the possible solutions to what we see are currently unsustainable farming practices. It is our contention that the adoption of sustainable management practices will ensure the long-term viability of this sector of the pasture industry and not, as many suggest, its demise. Keywords: biophysical indicators, hill land, offsite effects, on-site effects, sustainability