Agroforestry Adoption Research Articles

Exploring the scalability and sustainability of community-based agroforestry to achieve planetary health benefits in Haiti’s Lower Artibonite Valley

Community-based agroforestry, as a planetary health solution, can rebuild fertile soils, minimize climate risk, diversify farmer incomes, and provide a source of food, raw materials, and other vital ecosystem functions. Utilizing focus groups, individual semi-structured interviews, and field observations, we studied how the Haiti Timber Reintroduction Program (HTRIP), an agroforestry program operating in Haiti since 2005, leveraged institutional infrastructures and social networks to facilitate the adoption, scaling, and sustainability of community-based agroforestry as a solution for planetary health. Results show that the adoption and scaling of community-based agroforestry was facilitated by support from institutional and social networks. The results underscore the importance of cross-sector collaboration and coordination in creating the enabling conditions necessary for successful community-based agroforestry implementation. Additionally, strengthened social networks, cultivated through long-term participation in the HTRIP, contributed to the program’s sustainability. While competing socio-political problems in some low-income settings may seem insurmountable—particularly those in fragile states, where our study took place—our research demonstrates that community-based agroforestry solutions are possible. Where culturally relevant, this ecologically and socially based practice could be scaled up to amplify its benefits to more communities. We encourage further research to explore the scaling up of regenerative practices such as agroforestry for climate resilience and planetary health.

Crafting State-of-the-art Agroforestry for Bundelkhand using Insights from Past

Bundelkhand, a pivotal land area in Central India, is geographically demarcated across the states of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. The 13 districts in both states share similarities in cultural and socio-economic aspects. This paper commences with a descriptive portrayal of the Bundelkhand region, delving into the agricultural scenario, which is highly influenced by rainfall patterns. The region boasts a dominant agrarian rural population, with more than 40% comprising women. Owing to the lower productivity of wheat, farm diversification has been consistently recommended. In this context, agroforestry presents a respite, fostering resilience at the farm level. Agri-silvicultural and silvipastoral systems are typically recommended for this region and are detailed alongside the traditionally prevailing agroforestry practices of the area. This review synthesizes the need for agroforestry adoption for four major reasons and its impact on the Bundelkhand region. Furthermore, it presents the constraints, problems, and motivational factors for adopting agroforestry, ultimately providing directions for the way forward

Adoption of agroforestry systems by smallholders’ farmers in the Sudano-Sahelian zones of Mali and Burkina Faso, West Africa

AbstractDespite the well-known potential of agroforestry systems to sustain livelihoods and ecosystem services, their targeted adoption in the Sudano-Sahelian zone of West Africa is low. To address this, we used questionnaires with 279 farmers to understand their socio-economic characteristics determining the adoption of agroforestry technologies and to record the preferred tree species in the Koulikoro region of Mali and West-Central region of Burkina Faso. The result of a binary logistic regression showed that income, off farm activities, average number of owned sheep, cooperative membership, forage security, and maintained trees and shrubs fostered the adoption of agroforestry technologies. Contrarily, the adoption of agroforestry technologies was negatively influenced by household size and crop yield. Our data show that agroforestry parklands are the most popular agroforestry technology. The most common agroforestry tree species in the study region was Vitellaria paradoxa C. F. Gaertn. The dominance of V. paradoxa within these parklands may be partly explained by the tree’s adaptation to severe drought and fire hazards, which are common to the study region. The study also revealed that smallholder farmers in Mali maintained trees on farms mainly for food security, whereas in Burkina Faso trees were mainly kept for maintaining soil fertility. We conclude that in all initiatives aimed at promoting the adoption of agroforestry in the study region, efforts should be made to consider farmers’ socioeconomic characteristics, tree preferences, and perceptions (as identified in this study).

Agroforestry: Multifunctional Benefits and Implementation Strategies

Agroforestry, the practice of integrating trees and shrubs into agricultural landscapes, offers many benefits for biodiversity, soil health, climate resilience, and socio-economic development. This review explores the multifunctional benefits of agroforestry systems and discusses implementation strategies to optimize their potential. The article covers ecological, economic, and social aspects, highlighting successful case studies and best practices from various regions. By providing a comprehensive overview of agroforestry's advantages and practical approaches for its adoption, this review aims to inform policymakers, researchers, and practitioners about the transformative potential of agroforestry in sustainable land management and rural development. Agroforestry systems have the potential to transform traditional agricultural practices by promoting biodiversity, enhancing ecosystem services, and increasing farm productivity and resilience. Integrating trees and shrubs into farming landscapes can improve soil health through enhanced nutrient cycling and erosion control, sequester carbon to mitigate climate change, and create microclimates that protect crops and livestock from extreme weather events. Additionally, agroforestry offers significant economic benefits by diversifying income sources for farmers, reducing reliance on chemical inputs, and improving market opportunities for agroforestry products. The review also addresses the social implications of agroforestry, emphasizing its role in enhancing rural livelihoods, promoting food security, and supporting community resilience. Agroforestry practices can empower smallholder farmers by providing them with new skills and knowledge, increasing their adaptive capacity, and fostering social cohesion through community-based initiatives. The article presents a comprehensive analysis of the barriers to agroforestry adoption, such as lack of awareness, financial constraints, and insecure land tenure, and proposes solutions to overcome these challenges. In-depth case studies from various regions illustrate the successful implementation of agroforestry systems and their positive impacts on local communities and ecosystems. The review highlights best practices and lessons learned from these examples, offering valuable insights for scaling up agroforestry initiatives globally. By integrating scientific research with practical experiences, this article provides a holistic perspective on the potential of agroforestry to contribute to sustainable development goals, including climate action, zero hunger, and life on land. Ultimately, this review aims to inspire policymakers, researchers, and practitioners to recognize the value of agroforestry and to implement strategies that support its widespread adoption. By fostering collaboration among stakeholders and promoting innovative approaches, agroforestry can become a key component of sustainable agricultural landscapes, ensuring food security, environmental health, and socio-economic well-being for future generations.

Risky for the income, useful for the environment: Predicting farmers' intention to adopt oil palm agroforestry using an extended theory of planned behaviour

Oil palm agroforestry provides potential benefits for promoting the environmental sustainability and resilience of smallholder plantations. However, its adoption remains limited, and there is no evidence of sociopsychological factors influencing farmers' adoption of oil palm agroforestry. This study applies an extended Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) to analyse smallholder farmers' intentions to adopt oil palm agroforestry. The study sampled 205 oil palm farmers from Jambi, Indonesia and applied partial least squares structural equation modelling, which is commonly used in studies involving TPB. The results showed that attitudes towards oil palm agroforestry and perceived behavioural control positively influenced farmers' intentions to adopt oil palm agroforestry. However, the influence of subjective norms was not statistically significant. Additionally, compared with its perceived environmental benefits, the perceived risks of adopting oil palm agroforestry had a stronger effect on attitudes and perceived behavioural control. The most crucial barrier to adopting oil palm agroforestry is the farmers' perception of its difficulty. The findings highlight that predicting farmers' intention to adopt oil palm agroforestry with the TPB is complex but also underscores the potential acceptance of oil palm agroforestry implementation in smallholder plantations. Policymakers should focus on reducing the barriers and consider smallholders’ practical preferences when designing interventions to implement oil palm agroforestry. The results contribute to the development of sustainable oil palm policy schemes to maintain commodity competitiveness in the global market, where there is an increasing demand for sustainably produced goods.

Factors influencing agroforestry practices adoption in the central river Region of The Gambia

The world's multiple landscape crises have placed agroforestry among the cost-effective nature-based solutions with numerous ecological, social, and economic benefits. This study examined the farmer and land factors influencing the adoption of agroforestry practices in the Gambia's Central River Region. Stratified random sampling was used to collect primary data from 377 households using semi-structured questionnaires and farm-level walkabout observations. The study used purposive and snowball sampling methods to engage different key informants. The results indicated that the agroforestry adoption rate in the study area was 52.3 %. Significant differences between the means of agroforestry adopters and non-adopters were observed. Adopters held more land size 0.66ha vs. 0.55ha, owned more livelihood assets (private land and livestock), and had significantly more fenced lands. The binary regression model established that livelihood assets, land size, land fencing, and gender were positively associated with agroforestry adoption in the study area. Conclusively, land-related factors emerged as more predictable determinants of agroforestry adoption than farmer-related factors. Notably, age and education, though important socioeconomic attributes, remained relatively the same between adopters and non-adopters, and were not statistically significant. The study recommends cross-cutting farmer and land-related policies, as well as other interventions to boost agroforestry adoption. It further suggests a follow-up study to quantify the actual cost and benefits associated with agroforestry adoption in the area.

Land management and factors influencing agroforestry adoption on potato farmlands in the Dieng Plateau, Indonesia

Abstract. Pujiwinarko A, Soeprobowati TR, Kismartini. 2024. Land management and factors influencing agroforestry adoption on potato farmlands in the Dieng Plateau, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 25: 2623-2641. The Dieng area in Indonesia has long experienced agricultural land degradation, and intensive potato monoculture farming is one of the leading causes. Vegetative-based programs such as agroforestry have been implemented, but the level of adoption still needs to improve. This research aims to evaluate land management systems and analyze practices and the factors influencing agroforestry adoption of potato farming land in Dieng. We surveyed 260 potato farmers and interviewed 12 Key Informant Interviews (KII). Data were analyzed using binary logistic regression, descriptive statistics, and narrative approaches. Our research found changes in how potato farmers manage land regarding planting frequency and mulch use. The combination of potatoes and MPTS (Multi-Purpose Tree Species) is the plant composition most commonly found in agroforestry practices. Carrots (Daucus carota L.) are the vegetables that farmers most often plant when rotating potato crops. Mountain pine (Casuarina junghuhniana Miq.) and Carica (Carica pubescens (A.DC.) Lenne & K.Koch) are the species of trees and MPTS most commonly found in the fields of potato farmers who adopt agroforestry. Farmers maintain MPTS and trees on their land due to their suitability with main food crops and economic considerations. Several factors, including the species of energy source, use of mulch, frequency of potato planting, perception of disasters, farmer interest, prices, markets, the experience of vegetative activities, and government policy, significantly influence agroforestry adoption. Considering local agricultural systems, including the presence of principal crops and their management on the land, socio-economic and farmers' perspectives are essential to further increase agroforestry adoption in Dieng.

Unraveling farmers' interrelated adaptation and mitigation adoption decisions under perceived climate change risks

Climate change poses a risk to agricultural activity. Understanding farmers' behaviors is increasingly important for managing climate risks and improving their adaptive capacity. This study aims to identify the key risk-related drivers influencing several adaptation and mitigation strategies by adopting various Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) technologies to reduce climate change vulnerability. We investigate the interrelated nature of the adoption of CSA technologies related to soil fertility, soil conservation, agroforestry, agro-advisory apps, and alternative coffee farming practices. To explore the role of the perceived risks related to CSA technology adoption, we constructed an extended model that combines protection motivation theory, perceived farmers' adoption risks and social and demographic determinants. We collected empirical data from 519 coffee farmers in Costa Rica and analyzed the data through a multivariate probit technique. The analysis reveals how the influence of perceived climate risks severity, perceived vulnerability, response efficacy, self-efficacy, and perceived cost changes according to the CSA technology. As for the perceived adoption risks, we show that the adoption likelihood of CSA technologies focused on mitigation decreases with increasing perceived adoption risk. Other determinants, such as the number of coffee buyers and the farmers' membership in an organization, steer the adoption of soil fertility practices, agroforestry, and agro-advisory mobile apps. Main theoretical implications include the integration of the CSA adoption risk-related perceptions to the protection motivation theory, since it reflects on farmers' fear of potential losses or additional costs associated with implementing these practices. The finding gives a nuanced explanation of farmers' decisions under pressing climate change threats. Practical implications for increasing CSA adoption are that CSA promotion programs must consider that farmers see CSA technologies as interrelated in their adoption decisions, meaning that more fruitful synergies could be promoted by acknowledging the bundled adoption of multiple CSA technologies. Thus, promoting a mix of CSA technologies and practices is essential for achieving resilience while increasing productivity.

Tackling climate change: Agroforestry adoption in the face of regional weather extremes

The cultivation of agroforestry systems is regarded as an effective strategy that can help synergistically mitigate and adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change and regional extreme weather events. This study addresses the question of whether, and under what conditions, farmers are likely to adopt agroforestry systems in response to regional weather extremes and presents a novel research approach to tackle this question. A discrete choice experiment was conducted to elicit farmers’ preferences for agroforestry and wood-based land use systems. The results were combined with geospatial weather information. Assuming adaptive weather expectations, land users’ dynamic responses to extreme weather were simulated in terms of adoption probabilities. Farmers in the case study region in southeastern Germany were found to have a negative preference for alley cropping systems (i.e. agroforestry) and short rotation coppice, compared to an exclusively crop-based land use system. However, the results from the simulation of a 2018-like extreme weather event showed that alley cropping has a high probability of being adopted in the long-term. This study provides novel insights into the adaptive uptake of climate-resilient agroforestry systems. This information can be used to develop more effective policies and programs to promote agroforestry as a climate-resilient land-use strategy.

Financial Feasibility Study and Development of Technical Specifications for Coffee Agroforestry for Community Forest Farmers with Revolving Fund Support for Productivity Optimization

This research investigates coffee agroforestry systems' financial feasibility and technical specifications in community forests (HKm). Coffee agroforestry is acknowledged for its potential to enhance biodiversity, increase land productivity, maintain ecological balance, and provide economic benefits for small-scale farmers. The study employs a mixed-methods approach, utilizing in-depth interviews, field observations, and questionnaires to gather primary data while incorporating reports and literature as secondary data sources. The analysis reveals that the coffee agroforestry system in HKm demonstrates financial viability, with a positive NPV, a BCR exceeding 1, and an IRR of 33%. However, challenges such as insufficient technical knowledge and limited financial support persist as significant barriers. Furthermore, this research develops technical specifications, including selecting high-quality coffee seeds, shoot grafting techniques, fertilization, and pest management practices. These specifications are intended to serve as a practical guide for farmers adopting coffee agroforestry systems, enabling them to improve productivity and economic well-being. Moreover, the findings of this study provide a solid foundation for developing policies that encourage the widespread adoption of coffee agroforestry. As a result, this research makes notable contributions to both the scientific and practical aspects of coffee agroforestry for Community Forest farmers, paving the way for further research and formulating comprehensive strategies to address the challenges farmers face.

Agroforestry as a Sustainable Solution for Mitigating Climate Change Impacts and Addressing Water Scarcity in Tunisia: A Review

Agroforestry, as a sustainable land management practice, has garnered attention worldwide for its potential to mitigate climate change impacts and address water scarcity issues. In Tunisia, where climate change-induced stresses are increasingly affecting agriculture and water resources, agroforestry presents a promising solution. This review paper examines the importance of agroforestry in Tunisia within the context of climate change, water shortage, and treated wastewater utilization. By analyzing existing literature and case studies, the paper elucidates the ecological, economic, and social benefits of agroforestry practices in Tunisia. Additionally, it discusses the role of agroforestry in enhancing resilience to climate change, conserving water resources, and utilizing treated wastewater sustainably. Furthermore, the paper evaluates policy support and identifies challenges hindering the widespread adoption of agroforestry in Tunisia. Overall, this review underscores the significance of agroforestry as a multifaceted approach to sustainable land management in Tunisia, offering recommendations for policymakers, practitioners, and researchers to promote its implementation and integration into national strategies.

An assessment of agroforestry as a climate‐smart practice: Evidences from farmers of northwestern region of Bangladesh

AbstractAgroforestry systems have grown significantly in popularity in Bangladesh during recent years due to their favorable effects on the environment and human health. These systems are essential for supporting sustainable agriculture because they increase diversity, improve food security, and provide revenue. This study's main objective is to show how agroforestry is a widely used ecological and climate‐resilient practice in Bangladesh. The research explores investment analysis, adoption‐influencing factors, and a strength, weakness, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis of agroforestry practices. A total of 340 respondents were chosen for this extensive study using a multistage random selection technique. The results showed a discrepancy in practice, with farmers exhibiting a high degree of awareness but limited application. Financial analysis employing metrics such as benefit‐cost ratio, net present value, and internal rate of return favored agroforestry, indicating its economic viability and potential benefits for adopters. Additionally, the adoption of agroforestry was found to be significantly influenced by a binary logistic regression model that highlighted several important features, including larger farm sizes, younger age groups, greater education levels, training experiences, frequent extension visits, and enhanced market access. The study also identified barriers to adoption, such as a lack of trained labor, poor technical assistance, and education. This thorough analysis clarifies the opportunities and constraints for agroforestry implementation in Bangladesh. It suggests broad adoption by means of focused training initiatives that empower farmers, provide observable advantages, and promote nationwide acceptance.

ASSESSING DRIVING FACTORS OF AGROFORESTRY ADOPTION AMONG FARMERS IN MADIMBA, DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO

Agroforestry is a significant solution to the challenges of tropical agriculture, offering substantial socioeconomic and ecological benefits. However, its adoption by farmers in Madimba territory, D.R. Congo, has shown challenges. This study investigates the factors influencing agroforestry adoption by surveying 310 households in 31 villages. We first used chi-square to identify variables associated with agroforestry adoption, subsequently, we inserted them in the Probit model as potential factors. The research identifies nine key factors affecting adoption: gender, age, land ownership, farming type, germplasm availability, perceived environmental change, products obtained from agroforestry, access to sensitization, and farmers’ organization membership. While aligning with some existing studies, these findings also present uniqueness, offering crucial insights for policymakers and practitioners. Therefore, the study shows the importance of targeted interventions and support mechanisms to enhance agroforestry practices adoption which contribute to the farmer's resilience towards economic and environmental challenges.

Holistic analysis of factors influencing the adoption of agroforestry to foster forest sector based climate solutions

Improving adoption rate is vital for realizing agroforestry innovations' financial and environmental benefits including fostering climate change adaptation and resilience efforts. Adoption rate of agroforestry innovations improves through feedback-enriched interventions. Yet, the lessons that decades of adoption research generated were only partially incorporated for improving prospective development interventions. Among others, application of reductionist approaches and rarity of holistic perspectives were primary causes for poor understanding of adoption contexts and subsequent incorporation in development programs. This study shows how to undertake holistic adoption empirical analysis by constructing Bayesian Belief Network (BBN). Findings revealed that household contexts consistently, followed by innovation attributes and system level features, influenced likelihood of adopting agroforestry innovations. BBN allowed discovery of the contribution of each variable and layer of variables on optimized adoption rate. Hence results suggested which (groups of) variables to focus when aiming to improve adoption results. Further testing hypothetical policy intervention allowed comprehension of potential outcomes. The approach consolidated the view that comprehensive assessment is essential for inclusive and actual understanding of adoption influencing factors. The stratification of farmers from discretization feature of BBN allowed potential of addressing all groups of farmers (e.g., poor, medium, rich, male decision-making dominated families), evading earlier concerns of development interventions benefitting only better-off farmers. Our findings proved that holistic analysis can better foster agroforestry innovations adoption by allowing targeted interventions and hence consolidated the forest sectors climate solution opportunities for smallholder farmers.

Integrated adoption of controlled grazing and multipurpose fodder trees for enhancing tree cover in dryland farming systems

CONTEXTIntegration of agroforestry with sustainable grazing systems can enhance tree cover in a given landscape. This integration could have a significant economic and ecological impact especially in dryland farming systems. Despite this, the integration is challenged by the lack of combined adoption of both agroforestry and sustainable grazing. OBJECTIVEIn this study, we first examined the factors that determine the integrated adoption of controlled grazing (CG) and multipurpose fodder trees (MFT). More importantly, we investigated whether the integrated adoption of CG and MFT enhances tree cover in dryland farming systems. METHODSBased on primary data collected from a randomly-selected sample of farm households, we used an IV approach to probe into the integrated effect of adopting CG and MFT on tree cover. On the other hand, the bivariate probit model was used to identify the factors that affect the adoption of both CG and MFT. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONOn average, adopters of both CG and MFT were found to have higher levels of tree abundance and density on their farms. Our model analysis indicates that these higher levels of tree abundance and density are positively related to the integrated adoption of CG and MFT. While the integrated adoption of CG and MFT had a stronger effect, separate adoption of CG or MFT was also correlated with tree abundance. These results generally indicate the importance of integrated silvopastoral systems not only as sustainable livestock management systems but also as promoters of vegetation (tree cover). SIGNIFICANCEGiven the economic and ecological importance of the integrated adoption of CG and MFT, factors that were found to influence integrated adoption including access to improved livestock breeds, skill development (both agroforestry and livestock management training), and agricultural services (such as irrigation and water sources) could give policy a useful direction for targeting and promoting the uptake of such integrated silvopastoral systems both for improving farmers' livelihoods and ecological sustainability.

Behavioural factors for farmers' adoption of agroforestry practices in Sweden

Agroforestry has recently been recognized as a sustainable land-use system that can both address farmers' productive needs and provide ecosystem services to society such as biodiversity and carbon sequestration. Further investigation into the role played by social and psychological factors for adoption of agroforestry within a European context, is needed. This paper provides an analysis of farmers' behavioural drivers with respect to their adoption of agroforestry practices, using a survey of 387 farmers from Sweden. We extended the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) model to incorporate the following behavioural factors: businessperson identity, network memberships, conservation objectives, as well as perceived economic benefits and labour constraints on actual adoption. Latent constructs in the model were first extracted with factor analysis before estimating their impact on adoption using logit models. The results indicate that network memberships improve the explanation of adoption and positively impact farmers' adoption of agroforestry, while the remaining behavioural variables were found to be statistically insignificant. We therefore recommend to encourage farmers' connection to formal networks in order to disseminate ideas, technical experience and guidance on agroforestry, thereby facilitating adoption. The lack of a significant influence of the TPB-factors in our study suggests that we are not able to confirm that TPB variables have an effect on actual adoption and may support the common criticism given to the model in relation to the well-known intention-behaviour “gap”.

Aspirations, ambitions and the adoption of diverse fruit trees – a case study of the livelihood effects in Kenya

Current food production systems all over the world face numerous challenges. Particularly smallholder farming in sub-Saharan Africa is in substantial need of sustainable solutions. Yet, the adoption of already existing sustainable agricultural practices such as agroforestry often remains low. This paper aims to deepen the understanding of smallholders’ decision-making processes for agroforestry adoption. Using the example of a CIFOR-ICRAF agroforestry project (Fruit Tree Portfolios), we examine the associated influences of ambition and livelihood aspirations on adoption and assess the impact of agroforestry on household well-being. We conduct several statistical analyses, including a logistic regression on the influence of ambitions and aspirations on adoption, and a linear regression with endogenous treatment effects and propensity score matching to assess the impact of adoption on well-being. The analyses are based on a primary data set collected from rural Kenyan households that participated in the project in 2021.We confirm the inverted U-shaped relationship between ambition and the willingness to take proactive steps, in this case the adoption of agroforestry, and emphasize its relevance for decision-making processes. In addition, livelihood aspirations towards off- or on-farm activities promoted the likelihood of adoption. Due to the versatility of integrating fruit trees into farms, they can serve both market- and food security-oriented purposes and thus supporting livelihoods in multiple ways. This is confirmed by the positive results of adoption on household well-being in terms of food security and household income. In summary, the inclusion of cognitive factors such as ambition and livelihood aspirations can help explain the adoption decisions of smallholder households and support inclusive and customized project designs. In the long term, these findings could have the potential to ensure that development interventions are adopted more successfully.

Environmental, social and economic sustainability in Lao coffee

Laos has experienced an emergence of coffee cultivation as Loa farmers, many of them women, have been cultivating coffee in the understorey of natural forests. This form of agroforestry produces high-quality specialty coffee, earning farmers a significant income while preserving biodiversity. Farmers’ adoption of agroforestry, in place of traditional shifting agriculture has been supported by initiatives like the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) project, which establishes agroforestry learning centres and mini-processing centres, in collaboration with companies such as the MX Coffee Company and the Comma Coffee Company. Developments in coffee cultivation have been on the rise in the last three decades in Keoset, a community in Khoun District, where failed development projects were later revived by SDC and improved upon with market-oriented initiatives. The project has assisted in establishing coffee nurseries, providing training, and establishing partnerships with private companies for processing and marketing and as a result, farmers have advanced from selling unprocessed cherries to selling parchment (semi-processed beans), earning them a higher income. Farmers selling green beans are also collecting a premium price from roasting companies and exporters. The ability to generate an income from coffee cultivation is significant, because 90% of the farmers engaged in coffee cultivation are women, who are now able to depend on an independently earned income, granting them a greater voice in household decision-making. Climate change poses potential risk to the future of coffee production, but the protection offered by forests largely shields coffee crops from storms and changes in temperature. The forests' maintenance of biodiversity also protects the predators of pests and disease, ensuring no chemical methods are needed for pest control, including against the coffee cherry borer (Hypothenemus hampei). A variety of challenges remain for which there are recommended responses. Challenges of institutional and legal context require capacity building within the government; world price fluctuations necessitate that farmers practice a mixed farming system to not rely solely on coffee; geographical limitations promote a focus on specialty-grade coffee; and competition from other cash crops requires awareness of the environmental risks associated with other crops and stricter zoning and regulation over different production systems. It is worth heeding these recommendations, as agroforestry coffee systems enhance livelihoods, empower women, promote environmental sustainability and demonstrate resilience to climate change, making it a potential model for countries facing similar challenges in similar agroecological zones.

The agroforestry-biodiversity-climate change nexus

Amongst human activity, industrial agriculture is a primary cause of biodiversity loss and climate change, reducing the land’s suitability for agriculture. This reduces global food security, increasing the pressure for food production which further exacerbates forest and land degradation. Agroforestry emerges as a promising solution by leveraging nature-based approaches to mimic natural ecosystems, combining trees with annual crops, to tackle both biodiversity loss and climate change. The adoption of tropical agroforests, shade-tolerant crops, scattered trees in parklands and homestead agroforestry, are all examples of how agroforestry has helped promote diverse and resilient landscapes capable of adapting to changing climatic conditions, while still providing essential ecosystem services. The positive influence of agroforestry on ecological processes is further supported by scientific evidence which shows that agroforestry enhances soil health, serves as a carbon sink and promotes resilience against climate hazards. The adoption of agroforestry may be hindered, however, by knowledge gaps, policy recognition and variations in effectiveness across different contexts. These can and should be overcome, because agroforestry is recognised by international organisations as a key strategy in sustainable land management and climate change mitigation, and as a vital tool for addressing food security on a global scale.

What makes agroforestry work?

This review summarizes findings from 22 case studies published together in Tropical Forest Issues 61 (Torquebiau 2024). The case studies present clear and tangible benefits from the adoption of agroforestry, based on a wide range of practices from Africa, Latin America and Asia. In this review practices and conditions for tangible benefits of agroforestry are summarized. The practices are presented in four categories: crops under trees or intercropped with trees; annual crops under multispecies tree cover; perennial crops under multispecies tree layers; and agroforests. The conditions cover seven thematic areas: social and human capital; attention to women; governance priorities; technical assistance and capacity strengthening; legal, institutional and policy frameworks; economic research; and value chains.