Adoption Of Agriculture Research Articles

AI-Driven Precision Agriculture: Optimizing Crop Yield and Resource Efficiency

This article explores the multifaceted applications of Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies in precision agriculture, focusing on their potential to significantly enhance crop yields while optimizing resource utilization. The article examines five key areas where AI is making substantial impacts: predictive analytics for crop management, intelligent irrigation systems, automated pest and disease detection, precision fertilizer application, and robotic harvesting. By integrating data from various sources and employing advanced machine learning algorithms, these AI-driven systems demonstrate remarkable improvements in efficiency, accuracy, and sustainability. The article highlights significant advancements, such as a 15% improvement in yield prediction accuracy, up to 30% reduction in water usage, and a 20% decrease in fertilizer use without compromising crop yields. While acknowledging challenges such as data privacy concerns and initial investment costs, the article underscores the long-term benefits of AI adoption in agriculture, including increased profitability, environmental sustainability, and improved food security. This comprehensive analysis provides insights into how AI-driven precision agriculture is reshaping modern farming practices and its potential to address global food production challenges while reducing agriculture's environmental footprint.

Poverty and resilience impacts of conservation agriculture adoption against climatic-shocks in Eastern Ethiopia

The aims of this study are to analysis adoption and impacts of conservation agriculture on poverty and resilience to drought in Eastern Ethiopia. Multi-stage sampling method was employed and four districts were randomly selected from Eastern Hararghe Zone. Using cross-sectional survey data collected in 2023 from 430 households, multinomial endogenous switching regression was applied in impact evaluation. The result shows farm experience, education, climatic-shocks experience, access to climate information, access to extension, number of oxen, farm size, labor force, livestock and distance to market are determinants of conservation agriculture (CA) adoption in terms of inter-cropping, crop rotation and crop residue retention or mulch practices in its single and combination of practices. Poverty was evaluated based on cost-of-basic-need and resilience to drought is in its index. Accordingly, the food poverty line and total consumption expenditure or total poverty line was found to be 6582.7ETB and 8620.70ETB per Adult/Equivalent per year in the study area. Results of average treatment effect on treated shows adoption is significantly reduced poverty and increased resilience to drought condition in the area. The study also shows importance role of extension service in adoption of CA practices. There is a need to encourage extension facilities and awareness to promote better adoption of CA particularly, in its combination. The combination of practices increased consumption expenditure of adopters by 73.3 percent compared to non-adopters, given its significant impact on households’ poverty and resilience to drought in moisture stress area of eastern Ethiopia. So, it is crucial to more advances farmers and experts’ information on climate shocks and conservation agricultural practices adoption. The policymakers ought to develop and encourage farmers’ asset building plan including livestock, adult education, market linkage facilities, extension and weather related information delivery service to enhance adoption of conservation agricultural practices to combat the current and future drought.

Contract Farming in Low and Lower-Middle-Income Countries: Using Meta-Analysis and Factor Analysis

Purpose: Smallholder farmers' agriculture in developing countries particularly in low and lower-middle-income countries is known for poor production and productivity levels which has been related to the inadequate use of improved agricultural inputs and marketing systems, and in this case, contract farming. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the various factors which affect contract farming among smallholder farmers in developing countries. However, trying to investigate those contract farming determinants by a single analytical method leads it to have limited findings, narrowed generalizability and difficulty in investigating major determinants that determine contract farming success. Therefore, a joint approach using factor analysis and meta-analysis can give a more comprehensive understanding of contract farming factors. Methodology: The data was gathered through a Systematic Literature Review, finding a total of 3007 studies from SCOPUS, PubMed, PubAg, and EMBASE. The PRISMA method was applied to, and finally, 35 peer-reviewed articles in English between January 1990 to September 2023 were selected. Findings: The meta-analysis showed interesting insights into factors influencing contract farming participation. Education and household size exhibited a negative association, suggesting that farmers with higher education levels and larger families may be less likely to participate in contract farming arrangements. This could be due to a preference for independent decision-making or the need for family labor in alternative income-generating activities. On the other hand, farmers with larger landholdings are more inclined to participate. To encourage broader participation, policymakers, and program designers could consider targeted outreach and support services for these specific demographics. Originality and value: Our new approach, joining meta-analysis and factor analysis, sheds innovative light on contract farming determinants. While the expected determinants like farm and household size, along with education, remained significant, our analysis showed unexpected nuances. Age of the household head emerged as potentially favoring younger, less experienced farmers. Moreover, access to extension services played an important role, while large household size might have a more complex influence depending on age composition. This comprehensive approach offers valuable insights for targeted outreach programs and collaboration with extension services to optimize contract farming adoption and success in developing countries.

Assessing Organic Farming Adoption in Selected Districts of Tamil Nadu: Challenges, Practices, and Pathways for Growth

This study investigates the specific challenges and opportunities faced by organic farmers in Tamil Nadu, focusing on how region-specific practices influence the adoption and success of organic farming. It draws insights from a survey of 300 organic growers across five districts: Coimbatore, Dindigul, Erode, Tirupur, and Villupuram. This study is particularly relevant because there is a lack of comprehensive research on the specific challenges and opportunities faced by organic farmers in Tamil Nadu, with limited data on the long-term impact of government initiatives and region-specific management options, especially for smallholder farmers. Additionally, gaps exist in understanding the economic viability, market demand, and farmer perceptions of organic farming together with challenges like knowledge gaps, pest control, managing risks, and lower initial yields during the transition from conventional farming to organic farming. The research evaluated the factors affecting organic farming, including crop yield, the use of different organic formulations, the role of different information services, opportunities and challenges, and the impact on the perceived effectiveness of various agricultural outcomes. Various statistical analyses were performed, including K-means clustering, Poisson regression, and chi-square test. The results revealed significant variations in the adoption of various organic inputs and regionally practiced organic formulations. Crop residues (82.67%), Jeevamrith (78.33%), Amudhakaraisal (77.00%), and 3G-Extracts (74.00%) have high adoption rates, reflecting their perceived effectiveness and accessibility among farmers. However, the adoption of microbial bio-inputs such as Trichoderma viride (1.00%), Acetobacter spp. (19.00%), Azophos (consortium of phosphorus fixing microbes) (26.33%), and Azospirillum spp. (28.67%) was notably poor despite their known benefits for soil health and crop yield. The chi-square test also highlighted key challenges faced by farmers in adopting organic farming practices. The Poisson regression analysis showed significant positive impacts on crop growth and yield, disease resistance, insect control, overall plant health, and input efficiency due to organic farming. The study’s insights are essential for developing targeted strategies to overcome barriers, supporting the growth and sustainability of organic farming. Addressing these challenges and promoting effective information channels will better equip stakeholders to support organic growers, contributing to more resilient and productive agricultural systems in the region.

Invisible Allies: The Role of Endophytic Entomopathogenic Microbes in Insect Pest Control

Endophytic entomopathogenic microbes, including both bacteria and fungi, hold significant promise as biocontrol agents in sustainable pest management. While the biocontrol potential of entomopathogens are well-established, their role as mutualistic endophytes within plant tissues offers a relatively new avenue for enhancing pest suppression. The ability of these microbes to colonize plant tissues allows them to serve as internal defense agents against insect pests, while simultaneously promoting plant health and resilience to environmental stressors. Here, we explore the growing body of knowledge surrounding the use of endophytic entomopathogenic bacteria and fungi in pest management. These microbes contribute to pest control through direct effects on insect populations, such as mortality and feeding inhibition, as well as indirect plant-mediated mechanisms that enhance plant defenses. Additionally, endophytic entomopathogens provide a range of benefits to their plant hosts, including growth promotion, nutrient acquisition, and protection against pathogens. Despite the clear advantages of using endophytic entomopathogens, there remain key challenges to their widespread implementation. Environmental factors can influence their persistence and efficacy in the field, and their relatively slow mode of action compared to chemical pesticides presents a hurdle for rapid adoption in commercial agriculture. Non-target effects and the development of effective formulations to ensure consistent colonization are also areas that require further investigation. Addressing these challenges through continued research into the complex interactions between endophytes, insects, plants, and their environments will be essential for advancing the integration of endophytic entomopathogenic microbes into sustainable pest management systems.

Factors shaping innovative behavior: A meta‐analysis of technology adoption studies in agriculture

AbstractThis study conducts a meta‐regression analysis to synthesize the marginal effects of 12 factors that frequently appear in empirical studies examining farmer's technology adoption behavior. The analysis includes 187 observational studies on technology adoption in agriculture, which are published in 32 peer‐reviewed journals in the broader field of agricultural economics, covering farmer's adoption in 47 countries for a diverse range of agricultural technologies. Using this broad meta‐dataset, we investigate whether each of the 12 determinants has a true effect on technology adoption rates and examine whether Type I and Type II publication bias are present in the adoption literature. Our results reveal that while most determinant factors significantly affect adoption rates, their marginal effects are generally of small magnitude and vary considerably by technology type and country group. Additionally, our results provide evidence of the presence of Type I publication bias in half of the factors considered and Type II publication bias in nearly all, underscoring the need for caution when interpreting results in the adoption literature by researchers and policymakers. Overall, the findings highlight the critical need for proactive measures to address publication bias and promote more transparent and credible research practices in agricultural economics.

Frontiers of Artificial Intelligence in Agricultural Sector: Trends and Transformations

Artificial intelligence (AI) in agriculture is transforming the sector by improving resources efficiency, sustainability and productivity. Our study examined a number of AI-related applications such as pest control, crop monitoring, precision farming and soil health evaluation. AI powered devices enables automated fertilization, harvesting and irrigation, and therefore, cutting down the labor expenses and resource waste. Predictive analytics in AI helps with crop yield and weather forecasts which ultimately improves the planning and risk management. The paper also discusses the challenges and limitations of AI adoption in agriculture, such as the need for reliable data, technical expertise and infrastructure investment. Ultimately, the findings highlights the AI can have positive transformative potential in creating resilient agricultural practices that can meet the demands of a growing global population while minimizing environmental impact. However, one of the biggest uses of AI is precision farming, which uses the technology to optimize inputs like water, fertilizer and pesticides by adjusting them to the unique requirements of the crop and the field. AI techniques also make it possible to detect the pests and diseases through picture recognition and predictive analytics, which ultimately minimizes the crop loss and allows for prompt interventions. Widespread use may be hampered by issues with data quality, model interpretability, expensive prices and system integration. Furthermore, issues with labor impact, regulatory frameworks and scalability complicate its adoption. In order to fully utilize AI in agriculture, researchers, farmers and policymakers must work together to overcome these challenges and develop workable and accessible solutions that are suited to a variety of agricultural environments. Present review also highlighted how AI involvement has the ability to revolutionize agricultural sector by developing resilient methods that can both minimize environmental effects and meet the needs of an expanding global population. The agriculture industry can set the path for a sustainable future by adopting AI advances and guaranteeing the environmental stewardship and goals of food safety and security.

Farmers’ adoption of organic agriculture—a systematic global literature review

Abstract Policymakers worldwide set ambitious targets to increase the share of organic farming. We conduct a global, systematic literature review to synthesise evidence on the adoption of organic farming and support policymakers and food-value chain actors in reaching policy goals. First, we map the existing research and identify substantial gaps regarding the research focus, methodology and geographical coverage. Second, using a conceptual framework of the farmers’ adoption process, we provide an overview of evidence-based recommendations to scale organic adoption. Finally, using regression analysis, we show that especially the organic market maturity and the level of agricultural productivity matter for the type of recommended measures.

Adoption Level of Farmers Regarding Cultivation Practices of Areca Nut in Chikmagalur District, Karnataka, India

The study examined the adoption of cultivation practices of areca nut in Chikmagalur district of Karnataka state during the year 2018-19. Chikmagalur is one of the largest and traditional areca nut-producing districts of Karnataka. Two taluks were selected in chikmagalur district based on the highest area under cultivation and the total sample size was 100. Seventeen items were considered to form a table to know the adoption of individual recommended practices by farmers concerning areca nut cultivation. Further to classify the overall adoption of areca nut growers recommended cultivation practices were grouped in to three major categories low, medium and high. The findings of the study revealed that, regarding the overall adoption of farmers about the cultivation of areca nut, less than half (43.00%) of the respondents were found in the medium adoption category, followed by 31.00 per-cent of respondents were found in high adoption category and more than one fourth (26.00%) of respondents were found in low adoption category regarding the adoption of individual recommended cultivation practices by areca nut growers.

Qualitative analysis of hydroponic container farm adoption, use, and benefits in the U.S.

Qualitative analysis of hydroponic container farm adoption, use, and benefits in the U.S.

Assessing the economic viability and factors affecting farmer adoption of black soldier fly larvae as broiler feed in Bangladesh: a comparative analysis

Despite its impressive economic growth, Bangladesh faces a persistent malnutrition challenge, costing over US$1 billion annually. The broiler industry plays a vital role in addressing nutritional needs by providing essential protein through meat and eggs. However, small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in this sector struggle with high feed prices, impacting their profitability and growth. Black Soldier Fly Larvae (BSFL) offers a sustainable and cost-effective alternative to conventional poultry feed, addressing both rising costs and environmental impacts. This study examined different aspects of BSFL, such as broiler feed, and farmers' perceptions of them in some selected areas of the Sylhet region of Bangladesh. A total of 60 respondents from three subdistricts in Sylhet district were selected using the purposive sampling technique. Data were analyzed through descriptive statistics, discriminative power value, binary logistic regression model, and profitability equation. Among the respondents, 70% (42) had a favorable attitude toward BSFL, and 30% (18) had a highly favorable attitude towards BSFL. Among eight socioeconomic attributes examined for the likeliness of adopting BSFL as broiler feed, the respondents' average income (p < 0.01), years of schooling (p < 0.05), and years of broiler farming experience (p < 0.01) were found to be significant. Further, farms using 50% BSFL and 50% traditional feed had a net return of BDT (Bangladeshi Taka) 35,045.67 (USD 419.71), higher than those using traditional feed, which had a net return of BDT 29670.67 (USD 355.38). Further, farms using 50% BSFL and 50% traditional feed had a benefit–cost ratio (BCR) of 1.16, compared to other farms with a BCR of 1.11. The study also found some problems causing slow growth in the adoption rate of BSFL in the study region, such as lack of training programs, extension campaigns, the uncertainty of input supply, and financial assistance. The study suggests making adequate measures to raise awareness about the profitability of BSFL as broiler feed, conducting training at the root level, and making inputs easily available to farmers.

Influence of Socio-Economic and Institutional Factors on the Adoption of Conservation Agriculture in Bahi District, Tanzania

This study sought to establish the influence of socio-economic and institutional factors on the adoption of conservation agriculture in Bahi District, Tanzania. This study used a cross-sectional research design, using the sample of 176 farming households, where 89 households were CA adopters and the remaining 87 households were non-CA adopters. Data from a questionnaire was analyzed through a binary logistic regression model and descriptive statistics. The study concluded that gender, age market availability, credit accessibility and bylaw awareness influenced the adoption of Conservation Agriculture in the study area. If credit accessibility, extension service and bylaws are present, then adopting CA is done more easily. Therefore, before introducing CA, it is important to assess the presence of these factors for better results. Some of the recommendations are that collaboration between financial institutions and policymakers be encouraged as it is essential to increase farmers' credit accessibility by providing affordable loans and financial services. Extension services need to be improved and expanded by funding the extension programs and employing more extension workers. Information dissemination and training on CA should be tailored to consider the needs of female and young farmers. Additionally, cooperative farming groups or networks of young and female farmers should be created to facilitate resource pooling, knowledge sharing and collective investment in necessary equipment and inputs.

Cover crop and herbicides can control purple nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus L.) and increase crop yields in conservation agriculture-based crop rotations

Adoption of conservation agriculture (CA) practices can lead to the dominance of perennial weeds including purple nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus L.) in different agroecologies over time. Without effective management of this weed, successful adoption of CA in smallholder farming systems is rather unlikely. Therefore, we aimed to develop an integrated strategy for managing C. rotundus in CA-based crop rotations. This study encompassed a two-year (during 2020–21 and 2021–22) field experimentation at Kanpur, India with a split-plot design with three replications. The treatments included purple nutsedge management practices in main plot and crop rotations in sub-plot under CA platform (no-tilled with added crop residues). Six management options were adopted in the summer season (during April to June) as main plots that were super-imposed with two crop rotations such as pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Huth) – wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and pearlmillet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R.Br) – chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) as sub-plot. Growing of cover crop Sesbania (Sesbania aculeata (Willd.) Pers.) during the summer season for 45 days followed by knockdown with 2,4-D 500 g a.i. Ha−1 (cultural management; Sesbania+2,4-D) and/or summer irrigation followed by application of halosulfuron-methyl 70 g a.i. Ha−1 at 20 days after irrigation (chemical management; halosulfuron-methyl) reduced the C. rotundus density by 37–42% and 23–64% over years, respectively, than conventional practice (ploughing during summer followed by irrigation and glyphosate 1.5 kg a.e. Ha−1 application). Besides, these practices could decrease 25–27% total weed density (p < 0.05) than conventional practice (mean of years) in summer season. Importantly, these management practices had a carry-over effect on reduction in density of C. rotundus and total weeds of rainy and winter season crops. For instance, Sesbania +2,4-D and halosulfuron-methyl decreased 35% and 15% density of C. rotundus, respectively, during rainy season than conventional practice. Irrespective of crop rotations, Sesbania +2,4-D and halosulfuron-methyl decreased 30–40% density of C. rotundus (mean of years) in winter season than conventional practice (p < 0.05). A significant reduction in dry weight of C. rotundus was recorded under Sesbania +2,4-D and halosulfuron-methyl in summer season by 13–23%, rainy season by 23–29%, and winter season by 55–72% than conventional practice. Pearlmillet-chickpea rotation had a 10–35% lower infestation of C. rotundus than pigeonpea-wheat (p < 0.05). Management practices such as Sesbania +2,4-D and halosulfuron-methyl had higher system productivity by 15–19% in 2020–21 (p < 0.05), 5–7% in 2021–22 (p > 0.05), and 10–12% in average (p > 0.05) than conventional practice. Summer mungbean cultivation increased 45.2% and 10.1% density of C. rotundus in rainy season over Sesbania +2,4-D and halosulfuron-methyl in CA system, respectively (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the density of this weed was significantly higher under pigeonpea crop during rainy season by 41.4% than under pearlmillet crop (mean of years). Therefore, system-based approaches such as growing of cover crop Sesbania followed by knockdown with 2,4-D (Sesbania +2,4-D) and/or herbicide-based management through halosulfuron-methyl during summer season and subsequently recommended weed management practices in cropping systems (pearlmillet – chickpea and pigeonpea – wheat) can reduce the infestation of C. rotundus and total weeds in CA than conventional practice.

From profitability to trust: factors shaping digital agriculture adoption

From profitability to trust: factors shaping digital agriculture adoption

What Determines the Adoption of Conservation Agriculture? Evidence from Quebec.

Conservation agriculture (CA) is promoted by various organisations and scholars as alternative to conventional agriculture to meet growing food demand with minimal damage on environment; but its factors of adoption have not been well identified. The study uses the recent composite index of adoption of CA developed by Takam Fongang et al. (2023) to analyse the factors of adoption of conservation agriculture among maize and soybean farmers in Quebec. Using data from 93 maize and soybean producers and a Fractional logit model, the study shows that adoption of CA increases with farmer's favourable perceptions of yield and easiness of implementing CA, off-farm employment and higher education. The study therefore indicates that higher education, technical assistance and popularisation of performance of CA can play a significant role in boosting adoption of CA in Quebec.

Constraints faced and suggestions given by the farmers in adoption of drudgery reducing technologies

Constraints faced and suggestions given by the farmers in adoption of drudgery reducing technologies

Development of a hydroponic device using potassium Ion-Selective electrode and neural network technology

The rapid development of modern agricultural biotechnology and information technology has become a key driver of modern agricultural growth. The demand for ion detection is prevalent in all aspects of agriculture. This study details the research on an ion sensor agricultural system using potassium (K) ion-selective electrodes (ISEs). The main emphasis is on the application of artificial neural networks (ANNs) for driving ISE development of accuracy. ISEs based on solid contact with metal oxides, specifically manganese dioxide, are studied. Moreover, the design details of an ion signal acquisition device using the NI-9205 acquisition card and LabVIEW are presented. Finally, based on experimental results of nutrient solution samples, ANNs show better performance than the multiple linear regression method. The mean relative error of K-ISE detection was maintained within 4%. This study thoroughly discusses ISE technology to promote its adoption in agriculture.

The Adoption and Impact of Climate-Smart Water Management Technologies in Smallholder Farming Systems of Sub-Saharan Africa: A Systematic Literature Review

Agriculture plays a significant role in global water consumption, accounting for approximately 70% of the world’s freshwater usage. This makes this sector a critical factor in the depletion of water resources. Accordingly, this paper explores potential mitigatory impacts of climate-smart water management (CSWM) technologies in sub-Saharan Africa. About 70% of the population in sub-Saharan Africa is dependent on agriculture for sustaining their livelihoods. This is despite the low agricultural output in smallholder farming systems (SFS) due to water scarcity. This has spurred several attempts to promote the adoption of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) to raise agricultural outputs and improve smallholder farmers’ livelihoods. However, there has not been a comprehensive analysis of data categorised by various aspects of climate-smart water management technologies. In this systematic literature review, climate-smart water management technologies in sub-Saharan Africa’s agricultural sector were identified and analysed to determine strategies that could enhance their adoption and impact. To this end, academic articles reporting on the adoption of climate-smart water management technologies in databases were reviewed. Four significant literature databases were used. These were limited to Springer Link, ScienceDirect, MDPI, Wiley Online, and Google Scholar. The findings demonstrate that rainwater harvesting and micro-irrigation are the primary climate-smart water management technologies used by smallholder farmers. The literature review shows that adoption of CSWM practices is constrained by inadequate technological infrastructure, financial implications, unsuitable policies, and low user skills, particularly. It is therefore recommended that government agricultural departments and relevant advocates of CSA should incentivise and subsidise smallholder farmers to encourage CSWM technology adoption. This can be achieved through the implementation of suitable policies directed at technological infrastructure development, financial support for adoption, and technical skills training.

Factors Influencing the Adoption of Urban Agriculture and Its Effects on Household Food Security in Southwestern Nigeria

Given Nigeria&amp;apos;s growing population and the rapid rural-to-urban migration, it is crucial to examine various initiatives that can consistently support and improve food security in urban areas. This study examined one of these initiatives, which has proven to be an effective strategy in some areas of the world. Factors influencing the adoption of urban agriculture and its effect on the food security of households were examined in this study. A multi-stage sampling technique was used for data collection among 325 respondents. The analysis was conducted using descriptive statistics, probit, and ordered probit regression models. The descriptive statistics revealed that about 59% of respondents are engaged in urban agriculture. Among the determinants of urban agriculture adoption, age, land ownership, land size, and association membership were observed to positively determine the adoption of urban agriculture, while years of education, access to credit, and income negatively influence its adoption. The ordered probit regression model was used to assess the factors that influence the food security of farming households. Covariates including age and household sizes were found to negatively influence food security. Conversely, gender, education, land ownership rights, land size, credit access, association membership, and urban agriculture positively influence household food security. It was therefore concluded that urban agriculture is an effective means to improve household food security in Southwestern Nigeria. However, increasing awareness and education about the benefits of urban agriculture is crucial, as people often abandon this practice when they have increased access to credit and income. Furthermore, policies toward promoting land ownership and equality in access to resources should be implemented, as this will promote easy participation in urban agriculture.

Transcending Food-Miles: Unpacking the Drivers of In-Store Vertical Farming Adoption Among Food Retailers in France

This paper examines the potential of in-store vertical farming technologies in urban food retail as a solution to the increasing demand for fresh, locally sourced food. By enabling a “sell where you produce” model, vertical farming can reduce food miles, enhance traceability, and lower carbon emissions. The study applies the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) to analyze factors influencing the adoption of these technologies among food retailers in Rouen, France, with a particular focus on the role of risk aversion in shaping attitudes and decisions. The findings highlight that performance expectancy and facilitating conditions are the key drivers of adoption intentions among retail store managers. However, perceived risks, such as high investments and operational costs, pose significant barriers, while social influence appears to have little impact on their decisions. The study underscores the importance of conducting economic evaluations and risk assessments of vertical farming practices to ensure their long-term viability. As vertical farming holds the potential to boost fresh food production in urban areas, reduce food miles, and create sustainable supply chains, it is crucial to carefully weigh its benefits and risks to support its successful adoption in urban food retail.