Adjacent Ocean Research Articles

Interocean circulation and heat and freshwater budgets of the South China Sea based on a numerical model

The South China Sea (SCS) interocean circulation and its associated heat and freshwater budgets are examined using the results of a variable-grid global ocean model. The ocean model has a 1/6° resolution in the SCS and its adjacent oceans. The model results from 1982 to 2003 show that the western Pacific waters enter the SCS through the Luzon Strait with an annual mean volume transport of 4.80 Sv, of which 1.71 Sv returns to the western Pacific through the Taiwan Strait and East China Sea and 3.09 Sv flows toward the Indian Ocean. The heat in the western Pacific is transported to the SCS with a rate of 0.373 PW (relative to a reference temperature 3.72 °C), while the total heat transport through the outflow straits is 0.432 PW. The net heat transport out of the SCS is thus 0.059 PW, which is balanced by a mean net downward heat flux of 17 W/m 2 across the SCS air–sea interface. Therefore, the interocean circulation acts as an “air conditioner”, cooling the SCS and its overlaying atmosphere. The SCS contributes a heat transport of 0.279 PW to the Indian Ocean, of which 0.240 PW is from the Pacific Ocean through the Luzon Strait and 0.039 PW is from the SCS interior gained from the air–sea exchange. The Luzon Strait salt transport is greater than the total salt transport leaving the SCS by 3.97 Gg/s, implying a mean freshwater flux of 0.112 Sv (or 3.54 × 10 12 m 3/year) from the land discharge and P − E (precipitation minus evaporation). The total annual land discharge to the SCS is estimated to be 1.60 × 10 12 m 3/year, the total annual P − E over the SCS is thus 1.94 × 10 12 m 3/year, equivalent to a mean P − E of 0.55 m/year. The SCS freshwater contribution to the Indian Ocean is 0.096 Sv. The pattern of the SCS interocean circulation in winter differs greatly from that in summer. The SCS branch of the Pacific-to-Indian Ocean throughflow exists in winter, but not in summer. In winter this branching flow starts at the Luzon Strait and extends to the Karimata Strait. In summer the interocean circulation is featured by a north-northeastward current starting at the Karimata Strait and extending to the Taiwan and Luzon Straits, and a subsurface inflow from the Luzon Strait that upwells into the surface layer in the SCS interior to supply the outward transports.

Air pollution, greenhouse gases and climate change: Global and regional perspectives

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) warm the surface and the atmosphere with significant implications for rainfall, retreat of glaciers and sea ice, sea level, among other factors. About 30 years ago, it was recognized that the increase in tropospheric ozone from air pollution (NO x , CO and others) is an important greenhouse forcing term. In addition, the recognition of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) on stratospheric ozone and its climate effects linked chemistry and climate strongly. What is less recognized, however, is a comparably major global problem dealing with air pollution. Until about ten years ago, air pollution was thought to be just an urban or a local problem. But new data have revealed that air pollution is transported across continents and ocean basins due to fast long-range transport, resulting in trans-oceanic and trans-continental plumes of atmospheric brown clouds (ABCs) containing sub micron size particles, i.e., aerosols. ABCs intercept sunlight by absorbing as well as reflecting it, both of which lead to a large surface dimming. The dimming effect is enhanced further because aerosols may nucleate more cloud droplets, which makes the clouds reflect more solar radiation. The dimming has a surface cooling effect and decreases evaporation of moisture from the surface, thus slows down the hydrological cycle. On the other hand, absorption of solar radiation by black carbon and some organics increase atmospheric heating and tend to amplify greenhouse warming of the atmosphere. ABCs are concentrated in regional and mega-city hot spots. Long-range transport from these hot spots causes widespread plumes over the adjacent oceans. Such a pattern of regionally concentrated surface dimming and atmospheric solar heating, accompanied by widespread dimming over the oceans, gives rise to large regional effects. Only during the last decade, we have begun to comprehend the surprisingly large regional impacts. In S. Asia and N. Africa, the large north-south gradient in the ABC dimming has altered both the north-south gradients in sea surface temperatures and land–ocean contrast in surface temperatures, which in turn slow down the monsoon circulation and decrease rainfall over the continents. On the other hand, heating by black carbon warms the atmosphere at elevated levels from 2 to 6 km, where most tropical glaciers are located, thus strengthening the effect of GHGs on retreat of snow packs and glaciers in the Hindu Kush-Himalaya-Tibetan glaciers. Globally, the surface cooling effect of ABCs may have masked as much 47% of the global warming by greenhouse gases, with an uncertainty range of 20–80%. This presents a dilemma since efforts to curb air pollution may unmask the ABC cooling effect and enhance the surface warming. Thus efforts to reduce GHGs and air pollution should be done under one common framework. The uncertainties in our understanding of the ABC effects are large, but we are discovering new ways in which human activities are changing the climate and the environment.

Thermal Contrast between the Middle-Latitude Asian Continent and Adjacent Ocean and Its Connection to the East Asian Summer Precipitation

Abstract To analyze the middle-to-lower-troposphere atmospheric thermal contrast between the middle latitude over the Asian continent and over its eastern adjacent ocean near Japan, an empirical orthogonal function (EOF) analysis of the 40-yr ECMWF Re-Analysis (ERA-40) data of the June–August (JJA) 500-hPa geopotential height over the Asia–Pacific area (10°–80°N, 60°–180°E) during 1958–2000 was done. It shows that the dominating pattern of the thermal contrast may well be represented by a “seesaw” of 500-hPa geopotential height anomalies between a land area (40°–55°N, 75°–90°E) and an oceanic area (35°–42.5°N, 140°– 150°E). An index showing the difference between the two areas is defined as the middle-latitude land–sea thermal contrast index (LSI). The LSI has significant interannual and interdecadal variability. Its interannual variation is mainly attributed to the atmospheric thermal condition over the ocean, which has a remarkably regional unique feature, while the interdecadal variability is greatly attributed to that over the land. The LSI has a close connection to the East Asian summer precipitation. The results show that large (small) LSI is related to high (low) summer precipitation in the middle to lower reaches of the Yangtze River, Korea, Japan, and its eastern adjacent ocean at the same latitude, and low (high) precipitation in the South China Sea and tropical western Pacific, as well as low (high) precipitation in north China and high-latitude northeast Asia. The pattern of correlation between LSI and precipitation resembles the spatial distribution of the principle EOF mode of year-to-year precipitation variations. Furthermore, the variation of LSI is highly correlated to the time series of the first EOF mode of summer precipitation anomalies. This suggests that the middle-latitude land–sea thermal contrast is one of important factors to influence on the summer precipitation variations over the area from the whole East Asia to the western Pacific. The possible physical mechanisms of the land–sea thermal contrast impacting the East Asian summer monsoon precipitation are also investigated.

The role of surface heat fluxes in tropical intraseasonal oscillations

The tropics sustain strong, coherent variations in wind and precipitation on the intraseasonal (30–60 day) timescale. In their active phases, these intraseasonal oscillations are characterized by the slow eastward movement of stronger-than-average precipitation and westerly winds. In northern summer, rainfall and wind anomalies also propagate northward on the intraseasonal timescale over India, southeast and east Asia and the adjacent oceans, pacing the active and break cycles of the monsoons and thus exerting a direct control on the livelihoods of large populations dependent on rain-fed agriculture. We argue that heat fluxes from ocean to atmosphere play a fundamental role in driving the intraseasonal oscillations. We also propose that the current generation of numerical models may enable us to test this and other hypotheses about the dynamics of intraseasonal oscillations more convincingly than has been done in the past. The tropics sustain strong coherent variations in wind and precipitation on intraseasonal timescales of 30–60 days. These variations pace the active and break cycles of the monsoons, exerting a direct control on the livelihoods of large populations dependent on rain-fed agriculture. Emerging evidence suggests that heat fluxes from ocean to atmosphere play a fundamental role in driving these intraseasonal oscillations.

Present-day South American climate

This paper documents the main features of the climate and climate variability over South America, on the basis of instrumental observations gathered during the 20th Century. It should provide a modern reference framework for paleoclimate research in South America, targeting high-resolution proxies over the past few centuries. Several datasets suitable for present-day climate research are first described, highlighting their advantages as well as their limitations. We then provide a basic physical understanding of the mean annual cycle of the precipitation and atmospheric circulation over the continent and the adjacent oceans. In particular, the diversity of precipitation, temperature and wind patterns is interpreted in terms of the long meridional extent of the continent and the disruption of the large-scale circulation caused by the Andes cordillera, the contrasting oceanic boundary conditions and the landmass distribution. Similarly, the intensity and timing of the interannual and interdecadal climatic fluctuations exhibit considerable geographical dependence, as some regions are more influenced by large-scale phenomena rooted in the tropical oceans while others are more influenced by high-latitude phenomena. The impact of these large-scale phenomena over South America is documented by a regression analysis between selected atmospheric indices and the precipitation and temperature fields. We have included a discussion on the seasonality and long-term stability of such impacts, and complemented our general description by an updated review of the literature on climate variability over specific regions.

Role of TBO and ENSO scale ocean–atmosphere interaction in the Indo-Pacific region on Asian summer monsoon variability

Interannual variability of the Indian summer monsoon rainfall has two dominant periodicities, one on the quasi-biennial (2–3 year) time scale corresponding to tropospheric biennial oscillation (TBO) and the other on low frequency (3–7 year) corresponding to El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO). In the present study, the spatial and temporal patterns of various atmospheric and oceanic parameters associated with the Indian summer monsoon on the above two periodicities were investigated using NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data sets for the period 1950–2005. Influences of Indian and Pacific Ocean SSTs on the monsoon season rainfall are different for both of the time scales. Seasonal evolution and movement of SST and Walker circulation are also different. SST and velocity potential anomalies are southeast propagating on the TBO scale, while they are stationary on the ENSO scale. Latent heat flux and relative humidity anomalies over the Indian Ocean and local Hadley circulation between the Indian monsoon region and adjacent oceans have interannual variability only on the TBO time scale. Local processes over the Indian Ocean determine the Indian Ocean SST in biennial periodicity, while the effect of equatorial east Pacific SST is significant in the ENSO periodicity. TBO scale variability is dependent on the local factors of the Indian Ocean and the Indian summer monsoon, while the ENSO scale processes are remotely controlled by the Pacific Ocean.

Deep Convection East of the Andes Cordillera: A Test Case Analysis of Airmass Origin

Abstract Warm and moist air masses, required to generate deep convection east of the Andes Cordillera, are generally the result of humidity transport by the so-called low-level jet (LLJ). In this paper, it is shown from detailed test cases that the eastern part of the continent and the adjacent Atlantic Ocean may constitute another source of moist, warm air, which could be of potential importance even in the presence of a southerly LLJ. The position of the anticyclones crossing South America from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean appears to be a key factor affecting the origin of moisture over the continent. In particular, the LLJ may weaken and even change its direction when the eastern side of the South Pacific anticyclone crosses the mountains; this wind reversal is generally associated with deep convection suppression. Thus, as a South Pacific anticyclone crosses the continent more to the east and its western side reaches the east coast of South America, deep convection can reappear east of the Andes, over the Mendoza region, although the LLJ is frequently suppressed. This is associated with a transport of warm and moist air from Uruguay, southeast Brazil, or even directly from the Atlantic Ocean.

Comment on "Absence of Cooling in New Zealand and the Adjacent Ocean During the Younger Dryas Chronozone"

Barrows et al. (Reports, 5 October 2007, p. 86) presented cosmogenic exposure dates and data from an ocean sediment core that challenge evidence for glacier advance in New Zealand during the Younger Dryas event. We use modeling of geomorphic processes to argue that their cosmogenic exposure dates are inconclusive.

Response to Comment on "Absence of Cooling in New Zealand and the Adjacent Ocean During the Younger Dryas Chronozone"

Applegate et al . present the results of a moraine degradation model and suggest that the age of the Waiho Loop may be 1000 years older than the age we presented, thus raising the possibility that the moraine is a Younger Dryas landform. We show that this assessment is misleading on a number of grounds.

Sensitivity of the regional climate of East/Southeast Asia to convective parameterizations in the RegCM3 modelling system. Part 1: Focus on the Korean peninsula

AbstractThis study investigates the capability of the regional climate model, RegCM3, to simulate fine‐scale regional climate over a narrow peninsula or archipelago. The model is run in one‐way double‐nested mode with one mother domain and two nested domains. The mother domain encompasses the eastern and southern regions of Asia and adjacent oceans with a grid spacing of 60 km. The first nested domain focuses on the Korean peninsula and the second one covers the Philippine archipelago with a grid spacing of 20 km. The simulation spans a period of 5 years and 1 month, from November 2000 to December 2004. The sensitivity of the two convection schemes, namely, the Grell scheme (Grell) and the MIT‐Emanuel scheme (EMU), is studied.Model results obtained with both the Grell and EMU show reasonable performance in capturing the seasonal variation and the spatial characteristics of the East Asian monsoon. However, the Grell simulation appears to have persistent cold and dry biases in the summer season. There is a definite improvement in these model deficiencies by the implementation of EMU. Although the temperature fields in the Grell and EMU simulations are essentially the same in terms of the spatial distribution, the EMU simulation is quantitatively in better agreement with the observed estimates, indicating a substantial reduction in the cold bias. Further, in comparison with the Grell simulation, the EMU simulation shows an improvement in the timing and amplitude of the rain band propagating northward. The spatial distributions of precipitation also have good quality, capturing the localized maxima over Korea. The frequency distributions of daily temperature and precipitation simulated by EMU are closer to observations than those of the Grell simulation. It is found that the convective precipitation derived from different convection parameterizations is a major contributor to the performance of the model in summer. Copyright © 2008 Royal Meteorological Society

Regulation of the monsoon climate by two different orbital rhythms and forcing mechanisms

The East Asian monsoon is responsible for transferring huge amounts of heat and moisture between the land and the adjacent ocean. Significant changes in its capacity to do this will have direct impacts on regional climatic gradients and global atmospheric circulation. Determining the mechanisms that force long-term variation in monsoon behavior is therefore important for understanding global climate change. Competing theories vary in the degree of importance attached to glacial forcing, other orbital rhythms, and internal feedback mechanisms as primary drivers of change. There is, however, no convincing explanation as to why different proxy records from closely neighboring regions are tuned to different orbital rhythms. Here we present quantitative climatic reconstructions for the past 450 k.y. based on a long pollen record from Lake Biwa in Japan. The data suggest that continental and oceanic air mass temperatures respond predominantly to the 100 k.y. orbital rhythm, whereas the land-ocean temperature gradient and monsoon vigor oscillate mainly at the 23 k.y. insolation cycle. We suggest that the mechanisms for this behavior lie in the differential response of land and ocean to solar forcing, and conclude that the 100 k.y. signal dominates monsoon intensity only when the amplitude of solar forcing falls below a threshold level.

Variability in the freshwater balance of northern Marguerite Bay, Antarctic Peninsula: Results from δ18O

Abstract We investigate the seasonal variability in freshwater inputs to the Marguerite Bay region (Western Antarctic Peninsula) using a time series of oxygen isotopes in seawater from samples collected in the upper mixed layer of the ocean during 2002 and 2003. We find that meteoric water, mostly in the form of glacial ice melt, is the dominant freshwater source, accounting for up to 5% of the near-surface ocean during the austral summer. Sea-ice melt accounts for a much smaller percentage, even during the summer (maximum around 1%). The seasonality in meteoric water input to the ocean (around 2% of the near-surface ocean) is not dissimilar to that of sea-ice melt (around 2% in 2002 and 1% in 2003), contradicting the assumption that sea-ice processes dominate the seasonal evolution of the physical ocean environment close to the Antarctic continent. Three full-depth profiles of oxygen isotopes collected in successive Decembers (2001–2003) indicate that around 4 m of meteoric water is present in the water column at this time of year, and around 1 m of sea-ice formed from this same water column. The predominance of glacial melt is significant, since it is known to be an important factor in the operation of the ecosystem, for example by providing a source of nutrients and modifying the physical environment to control the spatial extent and magnitude of phytoplankton blooms. The Western Antarctic Peninsula is undergoing a very rapid change in climate, with increasing ocean and air temperatures, retreating glaciers, and increases in precipitation associated with changes in atmospheric circulation. As climate change continues, we expect meteoric water inputs to the adjacent ocean to rise further. Sea-ice in this sector of the Antarctic has shown a climatic decrease, and we expect a reduction in oceanic sea-ice melt fractions if this change continues. Continued monitoring of the oceanic freshwater budget at the western Peninsula is needed to track these changes as they occur, and to better understand their ecological consequences.

Lsotopic and Palynological Records of the Late Pleistocene in Eastern Canada and Adjacent Ocean Basins

Correlations of isotopic and palynological records from deep sea cores in Baffin Bay and Labrador Sea with terrestrial palynological sequences, supported by a few Th/U chronological controls, allow the establishment of a regional climatostratigraphic scheme for the Late Pleistocene climatic fluctuations in eastern Canada. During the climatic optimum of isotopic substage 5e, warmer conditions than present prevailed both on land and in oceanic surface water masses. The 5e/5d transition is marked by an abrupt shift in 818O values in Baffin Bay and Labrador Sea as a consequence of ice growth over circumpolar areas of northeastern Canada. From substage 5d to substage 5a, the Baffin Bay border lands experienced glacial conditions while subarctic to cool-temperate and humid climates persisted over Labrador Sea and Atlantic Canada. A short (<104yrs) stage 4 is recorded in deep sea cores with high 8'8O values. It corresponds to the Early Wisconsinan southward extension of the Laurentide Ice Sheet dated at ca. 80,000 yrs in the central St. Lawrence Lowland. There is no clear evidence of full glacial conditions in the Atlantic Provinces during this episode. Stage 3 (Middle Wisconsinan) corresponds in the isotopic records to large oscillations in 818O values suggesting meltwater transits in both Baffin Bay and Labrador Sea. The ice cover remained relatively extensive over eastern Canada, although some areas experienced ice-marginal conditions : in the Atlantic Provinces, notably on Cape Breton Island, hemiarctic to subarctic climate is inferred from palynological records; in the Appalachian foothills of Québec glacial Lake Gayhurst developed some 46,000 yrs ago. During isotopic stage 2 (Late Wisconsinan), the Laurentide Ice Sheet reached its maximum extent while satellitic ice-caps developed over the Atlantic Provinces. In deep sea cores, high 818O values mark the full glacial conditions of isotopic stage 2, although slightly lower values in western Labrador Sea indicate discrete but continuous meltwater influxes. An early melting phase of the northeastern margin of the Laurentide Ice Sheet is recorded shortly after 16,700BP. The full ice-retreat is observed after ca. 11,000BP. At that time, southeastern Canada was already largely ice-free. Finally, the optimum climatic conditions of isotopic stage 1 settled diachronously in the adjacent basins of eastern Canada.

The thermal regime of South African continental margins

We present thermal data from 100 oil exploration boreholes on the continental margins of South Africa. Near surface temperature profiles are constrained with temperatures acquired during reservoir tests, corrected bottom-hole temperatures and seafloor temperatures. The thermal conductivity profiles are estimated from geophysical well logs using a neural network method. Available data allow us to determine 41 new heat flow values computed from depth ranges greater than 1000 m, located on the western and southern continental margins of South Africa. We believe that the variations in surface heat flow are not controlled by the contribution of the sediments or the basement, but rather by the mantle heat flow. An upper bound of ~30 mW m−2 for the mantle heat flow on the interior of the continent can be inferred from the lowest available estimates, located near the coastline on the southern continental margin. On both continental margins, heat flow values reach a maximum of about 60 mW m−2, 100 km away from the shore, and consistently decrease further away towards values typically encountered in old oceanic domains (~50 mW m−2). This indicates that (1) the mantle heat flow increases over a short distance at the edge of the continent, which is consistent with studies on the effect of continents on mantle convection, and (2) it may increase to a value greater than heat flow on the adjacent ocean, as a possible consequence of the effect of the transition between thin oceanic lithosphere and thick and cold continental lithosphere on mantle convection.

Southern Patagonian glacial chronology for the Last Glacial period and implications for Southern Ocean climate

The Magellan region of southern South America is in a unique setting, at >50°S on the equatorial side of the Antarctic Frontal Zone, to record in detail terrestrial glacial to interglacial events. A 10Be chronology shows growth and millennial fluctuations of a Patagonian Ice Sheet between ∼25 and 17.6–17.0 cal ka. In the Strait of Magellan, the maximum ice margin position is dated to 24.6±0.9 ka, and other moraine ages are 18.5±1.8 and 17.6±0.2 ka (mean±1 standard deviation). In Bahía Inútil, dated moraine ages are 20.4±1.2 and 17.3±0.8 ka. The chronology of the local Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) reveals a record of atmospheric cooling that was broadly in phase with changes in Southern Ocean conditions, such as sea-ice fluctuations and surface water characteristics. Published modeling results indicate that a decline in temperature of ∼6 °C and slight drying over southernmost Patagonia could simulate the growth and sustained presence of an ice sheet to the mapped LGM limit. The terrestrial record in southern Patagonia and marine records in adjacent oceans indicate mean northward movement of the Antarctic Frontal Zone, which caused the last southern South American ice age. The Antarctic Frontal Zone at present lies only 3–5° to the south. Some significant changes in the Magellan region occurred in step with North Atlantic region and the Northern Hemisphere. For example, the overall time span of the last glaciation and the timing of maximum ice extent were similar between the hemispheres, despite maximum local summer insolation intensity in southern South America. Other characteristics of the southern Patagonian glacial history differ from the North Atlantic region, specifically an out-of-phase relationship during deglaciation, which is more similar to that of Southern Ocean and Antarctic records.

Absence of Cooling in New Zealand and the Adjacent Ocean During the Younger Dryas Chronozone

As the climate warmed at the end of the last glacial period, a rapid reversal in temperature, the Younger Dryas (YD) event, briefly returned much of the North Atlantic region to near full-glacial conditions. The event was associated with climate reversals in many other areas of the Northern Hemisphere and also with warming over and near Antarctica. However, the expression of the YD in the mid- to low latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere (and the southwest Pacific region in particular) is much more controversial. Here we show that the Waiho Loop advance of the Franz Josef Glacier in New Zealand was not a YD event, as previously thought, and that the adjacent ocean warmed throughout the YD.

Water quality variability and eutrophic trends in karstic tropical coastal lagoons of the Yucatán Peninsula

Coastal lagoon ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to eutrophication due to often restricted water exchange with the adjacent ocean, leading to an accumulation of nutrients from the surrounding watershed. The coastal areas of the northern Yucatán (SE Mexico) show similar geological characteristics: carbonate soils, and strong groundwater discharges (SGD), which are a source of fresh water and dissolved inorganic nutrients. However, due to differences in land use and human impact, these coastal lagoons have different water quality characteristics. To determine the variables and processes that influence water quality and eutrophic status of these tropical coastal lagoons with different hydrological regimes and human impacts, bimonthly samplings were carried for a year at 11 stations in Celestún and Chelem lagoons. The results indicate that Celestún is influenced by bioturbation (resuspension and nutrients inputs from waterfowl) and SGD with high concentrations of nitrate and silicate, leading to oligo-mesotrophic conditions. Chelem had high ammonium and phosphate concentrations, reflecting impacts by wastewaters from the surrounding urban area, resulting in meso-eutrophic conditions. Forcing functions such as climatic patterns, water residence time and local aquifer pollution are probably the main variables that explain the observed patterns.

The timing of linear dune activity in the Strzelecki and Tirari Deserts, Australia

Linear dunes occupy more than one-third of the Australian continent, but the timing of their formation is poorly understood. In this study, we collected 82 samples from 26 sites across the Strzelecki and Tirari Deserts in the driest part of central Australia to provide an optically stimulated luminescence chronology for these dunefields. The dunes preserve up to four stratigraphic horizons, bounded by palaeosols, which represent evidence for multiple periods of reactivation punctuated by episodes of increased environmental stability. Dune activity took place in episodes around 73–66, 35–32, 22–18 and 14–10 ka. Intermittent partial mobilisation persisted at other times throughout the last 75 ka and dune activity appears to have intensified during the late Holocene. Dune construction occurred when sediment was available for aeolian transport; in the Strzelecki and Tirari Deserts, this coincided with cold, arid conditions during Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 4, late MIS 3 and MIS 2, and the warm, dry climates of the late Pleistocene–Holocene transition period and late Holocene. Localised influxes of sediment on active floodplains and lake floors during the relatively more humid periods of MIS 5 also resulted in dune formation. The timing of widespread dune reactivation coincided with glaciation in southeastern Australia, along with cooler temperatures in the adjacent oceans and Antarctica.

Vertical attributes of precipitation systems in West Africa and adjacent Atlantic Ocean

This study reports the findings of TRMM (Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission) satellite data analyses undertaken to investigate differences in intensity and depth of precipitating systems in the transition region from continental to maritime environments in West Africa during the rainy season of June to September in 1998–2004. The results of this study are interpreted in the context of regional thermodynamic variables such as equivalent potential temperature and equivalent convective available potential energy to discern the processes governing storm development. Over continental West Africa, convective-type precipitating storms exhibit a substantially larger vertical extent compared to the ones over the eastern Atlantic Ocean. In contrast, the stratiform precipitating systems show similar vertical reflectivity patterns, depth and intensity over both land and adjacent ocean in West Africa. The differences in the attributes of storms, as they move from the continent to the ocean, can be partly explained in terms of the surface-atmosphere interactions that provide the necessary transports of energy and water vapor from the surface to the cloud layer.

Biogeochemical budgets in the eastern boundary current system of the North Atlantic: Evidence of net heterotrophy and nitrogen fixation

Thermohaline and chemical data from three WOCE (World Ocean Circulation Experiment) cruises conducted in 1997 and 1998 define the MedBox region, bounded by the Strait of Gibraltar, 24°N, 41°N, and 22°W. The carbon budget indicates that the MedBox is a heterotrophic region, where carbon is mineralized at a net rate of 17 ± 11 g C m−2 yr−1, supported by the input of allochthonous organic matter, mainly in the dissolved form, from the adjacent ocean. Dissolved organic carbon accounts for 90% of the organic carbon demand. In vitro measurements to estimate the net community production of the study area differ largely from our geochemical budget estimation, likely reflecting different spatial and temporal scales and/or terms or processes not taken into account by both methods. The nitrogen budget of the MedBox pointed to a significant atmospheric input via N2 fixation (3.4 ± 3.1 g N m−2 yr−1).