Additive Manufacturing Build Research Articles

Model performance evaluation of build time using geometric shape complexity and process parameters in material extrusion

Additive Manufacturing (AM) is gaining widespread interest and recognition in both academia and industry due to its numerous advantages over traditional manufacturing processes. The AM process offers two significant benefits: mass customization and the ability to achieve higher shape complexity at no cost. The present study introduces a methodology for quantifying the shape complexity of feature-based parametric models that AM can produce. This method is exclusively a quantitative approach based on the “number of inputs” required to define the feature or integral sketch. Furthermore, an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) based predictive model for estimating the AM build time has been developed and validated. Supervised Machine Learning (ML) is employed to predict printing time by considering significant design and manufacturing parameters that affect the overall process time. A performance evaluation is conducted between the developed ANN model and a statistical Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) model. The validation Computer Aided Design (CAD) samples are chosen to evaluate the ANN and MLR model's performance to predict the build time. It is observed that the ANN model outperforms the MLR model in estimating the build time of complex geometries. Regarding the efficiency of models, the ANN model achieved an R square value of 0.880 and a lower prediction error of 15.543 %. However, the MLR model showed some sensitivity to high complexity and large volume parts when predicting printing time, with a R square value of 0.96. In contrast, the ANN model is more precise in forecasting FDM build time for complex geometries and large volume parts.

Design and implementation of a machine log for PBF-LB/M on basis of IoT communication architectures and an ETL pipeline

Powder Bed Fusion with Laser Beam of Metals (PBF-LB/M) has gained more industrial relevance and already demonstrated applications at a small series scale. However, its widespread adoption in various use cases faces challenges due to the absence of interfaces to established Manufacturing Execution Systems (MES) that support customers in the predominantly data-driven quality assurance. Current state-of-the-art PBF-LB/M machines utilize communication architectures, such as OPC Unified Architecture (OPC UA), Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT) and Representational State Transfer Application Programming Interface (REST API). In the context of the Reference Architecture Model Industry 4.0 (RAMI 4.0) and the Internet of Things (IoT), the assets, particularly the physical PBF-LB/M machines, already have an integration layer implemented to communicate data such as process states or sensor values. Missing is an MES component acting as a communication and information layer. To address this gap, the proposed Extract Transform Load (ETL) pipeline aims to extract relevant data from the fabrication of each build cycle down to the level of scan vectors and additionally to register process signals. The suggested data schema for archiving each build cycle adheres to all terms defined by ISO/TC 261—Additive Manufacturing (AM). In relation to the measurement frequency, all data are reorganized into entities, such as the AM machine, build cycle, part, layer, and scan vector. These scan vectors are stored in a runtime-independent format, including all metadata, to be valid and traceable. The resulting machine log represents a comprehensive documentation of each build cycle, enabling data-driven quality assurance at process level.

Experimental study on transpiration cooling through additively manufactured porous structures

Film cooling and thermal barrier coating are the most common external cooling techniques used for gas turbine components. In film cooling, coolant air is brought to the external surface via rows of discrete holes. This study investigates an alternative geometry, referred to as transpiration cooling. Here, the coolant air is brought to the external surface through an additively manufactured porous structure. An experimental study was performed to characterize the downstream cooling performance by obtaining film cooling effectiveness and heat transfer coefficient using thermochromic liquid crystals. The experimental setup was first validated using a cylindrical film cooling sample and the results were compared to results obtained from previously published film cooling studies. After validation, transpiration cooling samples were investigated. A total of three porous structure samples with different thicknesses were subjected to testing. The thickness of the porous structure had insignificant effect on both the heat transfer coefficient and the film cooling effectiveness. The samples were tested at blowing ratios ranging from 0.5 to 2.0. Results showed an increase in laterally averaged heat transfer coefficient with increasing blowing ratio and compared to cylindrical film cooling, transpiration cooling yielded significantly higher distributions. The spanwise averaged film cooling effectiveness displayed a similar trend with higher values for transpiration cooling, mainly due to a more even mixing in the lateral direction. Values of the heat flux ratio showed that the high heat transfer coefficient penalizes the porous cooling method and only for low blowing ratios may transpiration cooling be the beneficial choice. From visualizations with water and carbon dioxide, it could be concluded that the inclination angle is close to 90° which yields a chaotic flow field and, in turn, high values of the heat transfer coefficient. By changing the additive manufacturing's build direction, a more favorable inclination angle should be achievable and, thereby, an opportunity to utilize the porous structure's excellent mixing in the spanwise direction.

Experimental and Analytical Study of Directional Isothermal Fatigue in Additively Manufactured Ti-TiB Metal Matrix Composites

Additive manufacturing (AM) techniques are widely investigated for the cost-effective use of titanium (Ti) alloys in various aerospace applications. One of the AM techniques developed for such applications is plasma transferred arc solid free-form fabrication (PTA-SFFF). Materials manufactured through AM techniques often exhibit anisotropies in mechanical properties due to the layer-by-layer material build. In this regard, the present study investigates the isothermal directional fatigue of a Ti-TiB metal matrix composite (MMC) manufactured by PTA-SFFF. This investigation includes a rotating beam fatigue test in the fully reversed condition (stress ratio, R = −1), electron microscopy, and calculations for fatigue life predictions using Paris’ and modified Paris’ equations. The fatigue experiments were performed at 350 °C using specimen with the test axis oriented diagonally (45°) and parallel (90°) to the AM builds directions. The fatigue values from the current experiments along with literature data find that the Ti MMC manufactured via PTA-SFFF exhibit fatigue anisotropy reporting highest strength in 90° and lowest in perpendicular (0°) AM build directions. Furthermore, calculations were performed to evaluate the optimum values of the stress intensity modification factor (λ) for fatigue life prediction in 0°, 45°, and 90° AM build directions. It was found that for the specimens with 45°, and 90° AM build directions, the computed intensity modification factors were very similar. This suggests that the initial fatigue crack characteristics such as location, shape, and size were similar in both 45°, and 90° AM build directions. However, in 0° AM build direction, the computed stress intensity modification factor was different from that of the 45°, and 90° AM build directions. This indicates that the fatigue crack initiation at 0° AM build direction is different compared to the other two directions considered in this study. Moreover, the quality of fatigue life prediction was assessed by calculating R2 values for both Paris and modified Paris predictions. Using the R2 values, it was found that the fatigue life predictions made by the modified Paris equation resulted in improved prediction accuracy for all three builds, and the percentage improvement ranged from 30% to 60%. Additionally, electron microscopy investigations of 0°, 45°, and 90° AM build specimens revealed extensive damage to the TiB particle compared to the Ti matrix as well as frequent TiB clusters in all three AM build directions. These observations suggest that the spread of these TiB clusters plays a role in the fatigue anisotropy of Ti-TiB MMCs.

D retention in e-beam powder-bed fused (3-D printed) tungsten exposed to high-flux deuterium plasma in Pisces-RF

Tungsten targets produced by the additive manufacturing (AM) method of electron-beam powder-bed fusion, or 3-D metal printing, are exposed to high flux D plasma in the Pisces-RF linear plasma device with the plasma-exposed surface normal to the AM build direction. D retention was measured by thermal desorption mass spectrometry following exposure to D plasma with an associated ∼50eV D+ ion flux. D+ fluence, and operational temperature, in the ranges 5×1024–5×1026 m−2 and 400–1000 K, are explored. D retention values for the AM W are compared to identically plasma exposed ’conventional’ sintered W and it is found that total D retention is similar. However, the D thermal release is notably different. Desorption from the AM W shows reduced D retention in traps typical of sintered W, and moderately increased trapping in defect types of higher trap release energy. The dependence of D retention on fluence is also different for the AM W, revealing an uptake slower than expected from Fickian diffusion, while that for sintered W is consistent and in agreement with previous poly-crystalline W results from Pisces-B. Hydrogen transport modeling of the fluence dependence suggests that interconnected pathways for D release back to the surface during plasma-exposure can account for the slower D uptake in the AM W.

Stereo vision based pose estimation for hybrid Additive Manufacturing with Laser Powder Bed Fusion

Laser Powder Bed Fusion (PBF-LB/M) is a resource-efficient Additive Manufacturing (AM) technology adopted for creation of intricate metallic components. To increase the production rate, combination of PBF-LB/M and conventional manufacturing is crucial. Currently, the placing of AM structures onto conventional pre-formed parts is lacking in accuracy, resulting in failed prints. To enhance the accuracy of PBF-LB/M for Hybrid Additive Manufacturing, it is essential to precisely determine the 6D pose of the base component on the substrate plate to minimize any misalignment between the component and the AM build. To tackle this challenge, a stereo vision system has been developed. This system can be easily integrated within the closed process chamber of many PBF-LB/M machine, enabling precise measurement of the base component’s position relative to the machine coordinate frame leading to a precise alignment of the part to the additive structures.

Structural metamaterial lattices by laser powder-bed fusion of 17-4PH steel

Additive manufacturing build parameters are used to engineer structural metamaterials lattices with controllable mechanical performance, achieved through microstructural grading of 17-4PH steel without compositional or geometric modification. The high solidification rates of laser powder-bed fusion suppress the thermal martensitic transformation and lead to elevated levels of retained austenite. Diamond cubic lattices built at low energy density (low thermal strain) retain a low martensite phase fraction (3 wt%) and exhibit a bend-dominated compression response. Lattices built at high energy density experience increased thermal strain during the build, causing in-situ deformation-driven transformation, yielding 44 wt% martensite; these exhibit a stretch-dominated compression response. Metamaterial lattices, with high and low energy density parameters in different configurations, exhibit mixed compression responses. Controllable mechanical response was achieved through control of microstructure, using build parameters to adjust thermal strain and selectively suppress or trigger the martensitic phase transformation in-situ.

Development of Additive Strategy Generator for Metal Additive Manufacturing Build Prediction Using Laser Path Generation Algorithm

Development of Additive Strategy Generator for Metal Additive Manufacturing Build Prediction Using Laser Path Generation Algorithm

Mass finishing of additively manufactured Ti6Al4V parts: An investigation of surface finish dependency on build orientation and processing conditions

Poor surface finish of as-built metal Additive Manufacturing (AM) remains a key challenge in fabricated parts. Metal AM parts typically require postprocessing to improve surface finish before application. Furthermore, different surface orientations and scanning strategies in Powder-Bed-Fusion (PBF) metal AM are prone to result in non-uniform surface roughness across different surfaces of a part. In recent years, Mass Finishing (MF) technologies, such as Centrifugal Disc Finishing (CDF), are gaining popularity in improving AM surfaces due to its fixture-free, batch-processing, and relatively low costs. There is a critical need to study the surface finish dependency on AM build orientation and MF processing conditions. In this study, Ti6Al4V ASTM-E8b tensile bars were fabricated in 45⁰ and 90⁰ orientation via Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF) to investigate the effects of CDF processing conditions on upward facing surface (up-skin), downward facing surface (down-skin), and side facing surface (side-skin). The surface roughness evolution on each type of surface were collected via laser scanning profilometry. It was found that both processing speed and processing time of CDF were statistically significant factors in improving AM surface roughness, however, processing time had higher impact. Furthermore, different build orientation demonstrated different surface roughness reduction rate and material removal rate. It was found that side-skin had the highest average roughness reduction, and the down-skin exhibited the least roughness reduction. In addition, this study found that the surface with the highest initial surface roughness (down-skin) had the least material removal rate, and that the highest material removal rate was observed in surface with higher periodicity (side-skin). Findings from this study will help the AM community in decision-making of CDF conditions to prevent over-finishing and under-finishing. In addition, the investigation of surface evolution dependency on AM build orientation can further improve the understanding of key mechanisms of AM + MF hybrid manufacturing system.

Magnetic Behavior of a Laser Deposited Fe–Ni–Mo Alloy

Magnetic shielding in spacecraft is a mission‐critical issue that must be addressed in a timely and effective manner. The high permeability of Fe–Ni–Mo alloys, makes them excellent candidates for magnetic shielding. This article explores a new and innovative approach, enabled by additive manufacturing (AM), to design, build, and test geometrically complex magnetic shields. A Fe–79.7Ni–4.1Mo alloy is additively manufactured using blown powder laser‐directed energy deposition (DED). AM build conditions are explored in the production of magnetic test rings and magnetic shield prototypes. Magnetic hysteresis test data are obtained, allowing for the determination of magnetic permeability, saturation, and coercivity. Detailed microstructural characterization is carried out. Three different prototype shield designs are printed and magnetic shield attenuation data is obtained. The magnetic field attenuation (shield effectiveness) obtained for the AM components is comparable to wrought equivalents. The values reported here for the magnetic permeability are the highest, and that for the magnetic coercivity the lowest, for any blown powder DED‐printed material currently known. The magnetic behavior is discussed with regard to grain size and orientation, as well as grain boundary effects, with all of these attributes contributing to the ultimate performance.

Semi-Automated Design Workflow for Bolt Clamping Interfaces to Post-Process Additive Manufactured Parts

Metal additive manufacturing (AM) enables the production of complex and individualized designs. However, most AM parts require postprocessing with subtractive manufacturing processes, which can account for a significant percentage of the total manufacturing cost of an AM part. Positioning and clamping of complex AM parts within post-processing machines often lead to increased prestresses and reduced tool accessibility. One concept to address this problem is the integration of clamping interfaces in the part. But this leads to the new design challenge of optimal and material-saving placement of clamping interfaces on the part. To overcome this challenge new design tools are desired that facilitate this work and automatically generate the design of clamping interfaces.A recently developed clamping system uses bolts that are directly printed onto parts as clamping interfaces. These printed bolts and the clamping jaws of the system enable a unique spatial positioning and rigid clamping of AM parts for post-processing. This work introduces a design workflow that supports the positioning of bolts using a knowledge-based engineering (KBE) approach. The workflow thus allows the user to easily find a feasible clamping configuration and automatically generates the geometries of the bolt-shaped clamping interfaces. As input, the workflow uses the part geometry and an AM build direction. During the workflow, the user can modify the position of the clamping system relative to the part and find feasible positions for bolts. The bolt geometries are then generated automatically, and the part can be exported. This paper describes the workflow in detail and provides a vision for future developments of the tool and its potential for the AM process chain.

A physics-based modeling framework to assess the cost scaling of additive manufacturing, with application to laser powder bed fusion

Purpose This study presents a framework to estimate throughput and cost of additive manufacturing (AM) as related to process parameters, material thermodynamic properties and machine specifications. Taking a 3D model of the part design as input, the model uses a parametrization of the rate-limiting physics of the AM build process – herein focusing on laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) and scaling of LPBF melt pool geometry – to estimate part- and material-specific build time. From this estimate, per-part cost is calculated using a quantity-dependent activity-based production model. Design/methodology/approach Analysis tools that assess how design variables and process parameters influence production cost increase our understanding of the economics of AM, thereby supporting its practical adoption. To this aim, our framework produces a representative scaling among process parameters, build rate and production cost. Findings For exemplary alloys and LPBF system specifications, predictions reveal the underlying tradeoff between production cost and machine capability, and look beyond the capability of currently commercially available equipment. As a proxy for build quality, the number of times each point in the build is re-melted is derived analytically as a function of process parameters, showcasing the tradeoff between print quality due to increased melting cycles, and throughput. Originality/value Typical cost models for AM only assess single operating points and are not coupled to models of the representative rate-limiting process physics. The present analysis of LPBF elucidates this important coupling, revealing tradeoffs between equipment capability and production cost, and looking beyond the limits of current commercially available equipment.

Physics-embedded graph network for accelerating phase-field simulation of microstructure evolution in additive manufacturing

The phase-field (PF) method is a physics-based computational approach for simulating interfacial morphology. It has been used to model powder melting, rapid solidification, and grain structure evolution in metal additive manufacturing (AM). However, traditional direct numerical simulation (DNS) of the PF method is computationally expensive due to sufficiently small mesh size. Here, a physics-embedded graph network (PEGN) is proposed to leverage an elegant graph representation of the grain structure and embed the classic PF theory into the graph network. By reformulating the classic PF problem as an unsupervised machine learning task on a graph network, PEGN efficiently solves temperature field, liquid/solid phase fraction, and grain orientation variables to minimize a physics-based loss/energy function. The approach is at least 50 times faster than DNS in both CPU and GPU implementation while still capturing key physical features. Hence, PEGN allows to simulate large-scale multi-layer and multi-track AM build effectively.

Wire-arc additive manufacturing of structures with overhang: Experimental results depositing material onto fixed substrate

As additive manufacturing (AM) technology grows both more advanced and more available, the challenges and limitations are also made more evident. Most existing solutions for AM build structures layer by layer using strictly vertical material deposition. As each layer must vertically adhere to the previous layer, support structures must be added if there are to be any kinds of overhangs. For methods requiring the build to be performed within a chamber, the size of the structure is also very limited. The research presented in this paper explores possible solutions to these challenges, focusing on wire-arc additive manufacturing in order to effectively build structures that can not easily be constructed using in-box, layer-based methods for AM. By non-vertical material deposition using an industrial robot manipulator, metal structures with overhangs are built onto a fixed, horizontal surface without any support structures. Cross sections of two different structures are examined by optical microscopy and hardness measurements to reveal potential differences between the areas with and without intersections or overhang.

Particle Loading Effects on Additively Manufactured and Laser Cured Medical Grade Silicone

Abstract A proposed benefit to additive manufacturing (AM) silicone components is the ability to selectively add fillers such as agents to make drug delivery devices. Laser curing silicones have benefits such as selective or graded curing of specific locations in the part. A challenge with high-temperature extrusion-based AM processes is understanding how particles of various thermal sensitivities, sizes, and loading amounts may affect the AM build parameters, polymer crosslink densities, and final products produced. This article investigates the effect of particle loading on laser-cured medical-grade silicone. Die swelling of silica gel-loaded silicone, chosen as a relatively nonthermally sensitive representative filler for drug agents, was evaluated as a function of extrusion speed, particle size, and particle loading amount. A design of experiments (DoE) on silica gel-loaded samples through tetrahydrofuran (THF) swell studies was done to explore how layer height, particle size, and particle loading amount may affect crosslink density. Last, the AM process with the female hormone 2-methoxyestradiol (2-Me2) and the drug Cyclosporin was investigated using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) elution to observe potential alterations of the final product. The results show promise for drug-loaded silicone samples fabricated using an extrude and laser curing AM technique.

In Situ Process Monitoring: A Perspective on the Role of In Situ Process Monitoring in the Certification of Additive Manufactured Space Hardware

In situ process monitoring refers to any technology that monitors an additive manufacturing (AM) process. The range of technologies is as broad as the range of nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods and can even extend to machine health monitoring more traditionally associated with process control (McCann et al. 2021). For example, voltage, current, and pressure sensors can be used to detect if something abnormal occurs in the regular operations of the AM machine, including the machinery, laser or arc, ventilation, wire feed, or powder recoating processes. If these sensors detect an off-nominal condition, that region of the AM build can be investigated by checking the data streams from other process monitoring technologies, or after the build using NDE.

Experimental investigation of mechanical properties for wrought and selective laser melting additively manufactured SS316L and MS300

Additive manufacturing (AM) is a disruptive technology used in many industries due to the superior mechanical, surface and microstructural properties. Selective laser melting (SLM) is one of the metal additive manufacturing techniques used to fabricate complex metallic components. SLM involves a laser as a heat source and powder as a raw material to build a three-dimensional geometry with layer-by-layer material deposition. The layer-by-layer manufacturing induces very different microstructure evolution than conventional manufacturing processes and results in different mechanical properties. There is a need to compare the different mechanical properties of SLM additively manufactured (SLM-AM) with the wrought materials. In this study, the mechanical properties of both SS316L stainless steel and MS300 maraging steel produced by selective laser melting are examined and compared with the conventional manufacturing processes. Mechanical properties such as tensile strength, hardness and density are compared for SLM-AM and wrought samples. Additively manufactured SS316L and MS300 shows good tensile strength and hardness. The tensile strength of 640 MPa for SS316L and 1057 MPa for MS 300 materials was observed for SLM-AM build samples, approximately 5 to 10 % higher than wrought materials. The hardness value of 258 HV and 397 HV is obtained for AM build samples of SS316L and MS300 respectively, which is higher than wrought materials. The hardness value has been observed 17% higher for SLM SS316L and 13% higher for MS300 material compared to wrought. However, elongation is observed higher in wrought samples compared to SLM build samples. This study highlights the advantages of additively manufactured SS316L and MS300 in comparison with wrought alloys.

Mechanical properties and fracture characterization of additive manufacturing polyamide 12 after accelerated weathering

The additive manufacturing (AM) methods, selective laser sintering (SLS) and multi jet fusion (MJF), are increasingly used for end-use polymer parts. Chemical reactions caused by ionizing radiation and catalyzed by oxygen, moisture, and heat are known to degrade the polymer structure, result in visual defects, and loss of mechanical properties. However, the effects of the AM layer-wise manufacturing process on polymer degradation are not widely studied. Yet, they may have implications on the mechanical properties and fracture mechanisms of the components.This paper presents an open access data repository of mechanical properties after weathering for AM plastics, conventionally manufactured plastics, and for two clear protective coatings. All materials were exposed to a 1500-h accelerated weathering cycle (ISO-4982-3) followed by tensile testing (ISO-527). Special attention was given to polyamide 12 (PA12) produced via powder bed fusion AM in two build orientations. The fracture surfaces of PA12 and glass-filled PA12 were further studied with scanning electron microscopy. The AM materials were PA12, glass-filled PA12, and carbon reinforced PA12. Traditionally manufactured materials included glass-filled and molybdenum disulfide-filled PA66, PMMA, ABS, PC, and cast PA12.No clear differences were found between the AM build orientations in fracture mechanisms or weathering performance. AM and cast PA12 were strongly affected by accelerated weathering. Carbon reinforced PA12 with a UV varnish experienced the least changes. Weathering resistance was increased with protective coatings. However, an increase in the deviation of mechanical properties with the coatings was observed. The contrary results in ductility for the glass-filled and molybdenum disulfide-filled PA66 after weathering would merit further studies.

Monitoring residual strain relaxation and preferred grain orientation of additively manufactured Inconel 625 by in-situ neutron imaging

Microstructures produced by Additive Manufacturing (AM) techniques determine many characteristics of components produced by this particular manufacturing technique. Residual stress and texture are among those characteristics, which need to be optimized to meet dimensional and strength requirements. Post-build heat treatments are necessary to relief residual stresses, homogenize the microstructure and to develop the necessary microstructures (precipitation or solution hardening) for strength. Our focus in this study is the measurement of residual stresses during a vacuum stress relief (VSR) heat treatment. We employ the energy-resolved neutron imaging to investigate, in-situ, the uniformity of the as-built texture and to map the residual strain distributions within samples of Inconel 625 (IN625). The samples used in this study were printed using the powder-bed metal laser melting additive manufacturing technique. Strain and texture variations were measured at room temperature for the as-built samples as well as their changes during stress relief annealing at 700 °C and 875 °C in a vacuum furnace. The uniformity of crystalline plane distribution, from which texture can be inferred, was imaged with sub-mm spatial resolution for the entire sample area exceeding several square centimeters. Despite the limited accuracy of in-situ lattice strain reconstruction during sample annealing, the results indicate that most of the strain relaxation occurs at 700 °C within the first 2–3 h. Relaxation of the strain at 875 °C happened at a much faster rate. In addition, energy-resolved neutron imaging demonstrates the possibility to correlate the uniformity of grain orientation and the degree of texture variations with printing parameters, in particular the laser translation speed. Simulations of the AM build process were carried out to predict the residual stress distributions within the samples as a function of the build process parameters. Comparisons of the simulation results to the room temperature experimental measurements show good agreements when the simulation data are averaged over the volume of the part confirming the usefulness of the experiments for validating simulation results. The neutron imaging technique described in this study can be helpful for the evaluation of bulk crystallographic characteristics in AM printed materials and can be used as a guide for developing the heat treatment cycle and for validations of VSR simulation results.

An innovative digital image correlation technique for in-situ process monitoring of composite structures in large scale additive manufacturing

As additive manufacturing (AM) continues to develop and become a standardized manufacturing method, there will be a continued need to provide in-situ monitoring during the manufacturing of polymer composite printed components. Thermal residual stress is a primary cause of failures such as interlayer disbonds or delamination, micro cracking, and dimensional instability, which can occur during or after the build. This study reports a novel digital image correlation (DIC) adaptation to monitor thermal residual stresses during the entire print process for large-scale AM. In this work, DIC has been investigated (a) by the natural speckle produced by the polymer surface for correlation, (b) to monitor AM build, and (c) to evaluate the effect of thermal residual stress on warpage of the printed component. The natural speckle pattern of the AM material resulted in a respectable 3.57% error compared to the traditional painted speckle pattern of 3.05% error. DIC measured a 190% increase in vertical displacement at the edge of the wall compared to the center, indicating warpage during AM. This work is a step towards a non-intrusive residual stress measuring technique using DIC for large-scale AM.