Additional Labor Input Research Articles

Development of a new index for automated mapping of ratoon rice areas using time-series normalized difference vegetation index imagery

Over recent decades, the global demand for food has continued to grow, owing to population growth and the loss of arable land. Rice ratooning offers new opportunities for increasing rice production and has received renewed interest because of the minimal additional labor input required for its adoption. Regular, regional-scale monitoring of the spatial patterns of both traditional and ratoon rice cropping systems provides essential information for agricultural resource management and food security studies. However, the similar phenological characteristics of traditional double rice and ratoon rice cropping systems make it challenging to accurately classify these cropping practices based on satellite observations alone. In this study, we first proposed an improved phenology-based rice cropping area detection algorithm using moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) imagery. A new index, ratoon rice index, was then developed to automatically delineate ratoon rice cropping areas with the aid of a base map of rice in Hubei Province, China. The accuracy assessment using ground truth data showed that our approach could map both traditional and ratoon rice cropping areas with high user accuracy (91.25% and 91.43%, respectively). The MODIS-retrieved rice cropping areas were validated using annual agricultural census data, and coefficient of determination ( R 2 ) values of 0.60 and 0.41 were recorded for traditional and ratoon rice cropping systems, respectively. The total area of ratoon rice was estimated to be 1 283.6 km 2 , 5.0% of the total rice cropping area, in Hubei Province in 2016. These demonstrated the feasibility of extracting the spatial patterns of both traditional and ratoon rice cropping systems solely from time-series NDVI and field survey data and strides made in facilitating the timely and routine monitoring of traditional and ratoon rice distribution at subnational level. Given sufficient historical satellite and phenology records, the proposed algorithm had the potential to enhance rice cropping area mapping efforts across a broad temporal scale ( e.g ., from the 1980s to the present).

Measuring the livelihood vulnerability index of a dry region in Indonesia

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the study of sustainable rural livelihoods by developing a model to measure vulnerability of subsistence communities in dryland regions and identifying the major determinants that contribute to the livelihood vulnerability of these communities. Design/methodology/approach The author conducted a household survey across three subsistence communities in West Timor (n=627), from June to November 2013. Based on the guideline of the OECD (2008), the author developed a series of indicators and constructed a composite index to measure the vulnerability of dryland communities. The author adapted the livelihood vulnerability index (LVI) measure from Hahn et al. (2009) but refined it by using Shannon’s entropy method in deciding the weights of indicators and statistically tested the correlation between indicators using Kendall’s correlations. Findings Six major determinants were identified: education (EDU), children’s participation in agriculture (CPA), agricultural income (AI), subsistence food reserve (SUBSIST), social-cultural participation (SCP) and access to water, health clinic and market (ACC). LVI in all communities shows significant and strong relationships with SCP (0.594, p<0.01), AI (0.545, p<0.01) and CPA (0.434, p<0.01). This signifies that constraints to engage in social gatherings, market the harvest and obtain additional labour input are currently the major contributor to the vulnerability in these communities. Research limitations/implications Shannon’s entropy is one of the methods for assisting in making decision (ranking) objectively. The results may need to be tested further using other methods. Practical implications Using objective weight provides additional information useful for identifying and prioritising areas (sub-components) which require attention and appropriate solutions to prevent households from further impoverishment and increased vulnerability. Social implications Livelihood vulnerability of subsistence community in dry region is closely related to local survival skills and customs. Differences in the level of vulnerability across communities are due not only to geographical location and physical infrastructure, but also the leadership of local customary leaders and village government in looking for ways to improve the livelihoods of community members. Originality/value This paper is based on part of the results of a PhD thesis supported and approved by Griffith University. It has not been published before.

An extractive removal step optimized for a high-throughput α-cellulose extraction method for δ13C and δ18O stable isotope ratio analysis in conifer tree rings.

Stable isotope ratios (δ13C and δ18O) of tree-ring α-cellulose are important tools in paleoclimatology, ecology, plant physiology and genetics. The Multiple Sample Isolation System for Solids (MSISS) was a major advance in the tree-ring α-cellulose extraction methods, offering greater throughput and reduced labor input compared to traditional alternatives. However, the usability of the method for resinous conifer species may be limited by the need to remove extractives from some conifer species in a separate pretreatment step. Here we test the necessity of pretreatment for α-cellulose extraction in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.), and the efficiency of a modified acetone-based ambient-temperature step for the removal of extractives (i) in loblolly pine from five geographic locations representing its natural range in the southeastern USA, and (ii) on five other common coniferous species (black spruce (Picea mariana Mill.), Fraser fir (Abies fraseri (Pursh) Poir.), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco), Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst) and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa D.)) with contrasting extractive profiles. The differences of δ13C values between the new and traditional pretreatment methods were within the precision of the isotope ratio mass spectrometry method used (±0.2‰), and the differences between δ18O values were not statistically significant. Although some unanticipated results were observed in Fraser fir, the new ambient-temperature technique was deemed as effective as the more labor-consuming and toxic traditional pretreatment protocol. The proposed technique requires a separate acetone-inert multiport system similar to MSISS, and the execution of both pretreatment and main extraction steps allows for simultaneous treatment of up to several hundred microsamples from resinous softwood, while the need of additional labor input remains minimal.

自然环境约束下的农业发展路径探索――以冀东侯家营村为例

The natural environment—climate, topography, water and the like—influences and shapes rural development and peasant life. At the same time, social and economic development acts on and changes the local natural environment. The development of an agrarian economy is the result of the interactions among environmental, social, and economic factors—it cannot be explained as simply a causal relationship. This article analyzes the village of Houjiaying in eastern Hebei province to show how interactions among the natural environment, social factors, political forces, and economic conditions shaped the village’s development path. Before 1949, in consideration of Houjiaying’s natural constraints—sandy loam soil, a high level of underground water, and a poor irrigation infrastructure—sorghum, which requires little irrigation and is drought tolerant, was planted as the staple crop. During the collectivization period (1950s–1970s), improvement in water conservancy and drainage alleviated some of the constraints imposed by the natural environment. However, additional labor input was needed to achieve a smooth transition to growing different crops. Since China’s reform and opening up (1978), the planting of water-intensive crops and rapid urbanization have led to sinking water tables in North China. Houjiaying has been especially affected since its soil is sandy loam. This, combined with the rising costs of labor resulting from competition with work outside agriculture, has not only restricted Houjiaying’s transformation from “old farming” to “new agriculture,” but has also led to the rapid, although not complete, decline of crop farming and the “forced” development of a risky livestock industry.气候、地形、水利等自然环境影响和支配着农村发展和农民生活，同时，社会经济的发展也作用于、改变着当地的自然环境条件。农业经济是在自然、社会、经济等多种因素的互动下不断发展的，而非简单的因果关系可以解释。本文以侯家营为例，纳入其自然环境约束，探讨自然、社会、政治、经济等各种因素的互动如何影响该村的农业发展路径。解放前，沙壤土质、地下水位高、缺乏灌溉等自然环境约束导致侯家营村民依赖耐涝、低灌溉需要的高粱种植来满足生存需要;集体化时期，农田水利建设一定程度上缓解了自然环境条件的制约，但也必须投入更多劳动力才能实现作物的顺利改种;改革开放以后，高灌溉需求的作物种植和城镇化发展导致华北地下水位下降，侯家营因沙壤土质受影响明显，加之非农就业引致劳动力成本上升，不仅制约了其从“旧农业”到“新农业”的转型，而且在种植业内部也发生了迅速而不彻底的退出，“被迫”从事的养殖业发展曲折、投机性很强。 (This article is in English.)

Genetic associations between maternal traits and aggressive behaviour in Large White sows

The present study examined the possibilities and consequences of selecting pigs for reduced aggression and desirable maternal behaviour. Data were recorded from 798 purebred Large White gilts, with an age of 217±17.7 (mean±SD) days, which were observed at mixing with unfamiliar conspecifics. The reaction of the sows towards separation from their litter was assessed for 2022 litters from 848 Large White sows. Sows’ performance during their time in the farrowing unit was scored based on the traits farrowing behaviour (i.e. need of birth assistance), rearing performance (i.e. litter quality at day 10 postpartum (pp)), usability (i.e. additional labour input during lactation period e.g. for treatments) and udder quality of the sow (i.e. udder attachment). For agonistic behaviour, traits heritabilities of h2=0.11±0.04 to h2=0.28±0.06 were estimated. For the sow’s reaction towards separation from her litter low heritabilities were found (h2=0.03±0.03 for separation test on day 1 pp and h2=0.02±0.03 for separation test on day 10 pp). Heritabilities for lactating sow’s performance (farrowing behaviour, rearing performance, usability of the sow and udder quality) in the farrowing unit ranged from h2=0.03±0.02 to h2=0.19±0.03. Due to these results it can be assumed that selection for these traits, for example, for udder quality or reduced aggression, is possible. Antagonistic associations were found between separation test on day 1 pp and different measures of aggressiveness (rg=−0.22±0.26 aggressive attack and rg=−0.41±0.33 reciprocal fighting). Future studies should determine economic as well as welfare-related values of these traits in order to decide whether selection for these traits will be reasonable.

Arbeitszeitflexibilisierung: Welche Modelle entlasten den Arbeitsmarkt?

Abstract Gerhard Kleinhenz gives an overview on the substantial progress in increasing the flexibility of work in Germany over the last 30 years. He strikes a positive balance: The situation has improved a lot. Never-the-less, reality is still far away from the vision of flexibility Economists have. He promotes increased awareness of its advantages: Relieving the labor market and to mobilise additional employees, which will become important because of demographic transition. Wolfgang Franz calls his article “winds of change - from shorter to longer work hours in Germany. He points out that there is a long lasting debate whether shortening of work hours has positive employment effects. It can be convincingly argued, however, that Germany′s work-sharing experiment failed. But now the dispute has taken quite the opposite direction. Will a longer work week create more jobs? More unpaid working hours will almost certainly increase labor demand but a considerable fraction of this additional labor input will be met by the employers now working longer. Besides this, the current movement towards longer work hours in order to secure jobs call for more flexibility of some institutional regulations dictated by jurisdiction, namely the principle of favourable solutions in the context of industry level bargaining. Knut Gerlach argues that under flexible working time contracts, specifically working time accounts as the most wide-spread and innovative type, workers, works councils and management agree to intertemporal time transfers usually with respect to a period of 12 months. In many firms this agreement is accompanied by guaranteeing implicitly or explicitly a temporary employment stability. He shows that such contracts achieve a greater short-term labor market flexibility and by lowering production costs as well as enhancing the efficiency of work organization they might increase employment in specific circumstances. The draw back, however, is that the stability of employment in conjunction with fixed wages (efficient contracts) might lead to long-term wage hikes and negative employment effects. To garner the employment enhancing impact of working time accounts they have to be supplemented by more flexibility of collective wage contracts, specifically by additional competition between different wage setting regimes.

The disappointing adoption dynamics of a yield-increasing, low external-input technology: the case of SRI in Madagascar

Low external-input agricultural technologies are commonly developed for and promoted in poor rural areas of the developing world because they are presumably more appropriate for farmers who may not have the access or ability to adopt methods requiring significant purchased inputs. The System of Rice Intensification (SRI), a low external-input (LEI) technology, has received a fair amount of attention in recent years both in and outside of Madagascar, where remarkable yield increases have been achieved in a country where most farmers are unable to grow enough rice to feed their families. Despite its promise, we find that SRI is difficult for most farmers to practise because the method requires significant additional labor input at a time of the year when liquidity is low and labor effort is already high. While SRI may be unique for its dramatic yield increases and relative complexity, the highly seasonal, labor-intensive nature of SRI is common to many LEI technologies, calling into question the common assumption of the appropriateness of such technologies for smallholders.

The role of social science in generating technologies for the farming community in Africa

This paper is based on experiences obtained during a joint enterprise between the Social Science Interface Research Unit, of the Crop Pests Research Programme, and the Livestock Ticks Research Programme at ICIPE. Topics bearing on technology design and development are emphasized. The resource-poor farmer as conceptualized within ICIPE and reinforced by research experience, is by definition a person who operates a diversified system of production in which food security concerns and cash income intakes are crucial. The family/household provides most of the labour required in production in African farming communities. For this reason, their labour investment into the adoption of novel activities or technological innovation and their assessment of the value of such innovations requiring changes in their normative practice, is appraised primarily in terms of the returns they would get for the additional labour input. It is noteworthy that much of the so-called family labour is, in fact, female labour. It is therefore arguable that the perception of the women of technological inputs and innovations as profitable, is crucial for the successful adoption and social acceptance of novel technology. Although agricultural land is in increasingly short supply, it would appear that the crucial limiting factor in production is not a shortage of land per se , since a good number of households do not fully exploit all the agricultural land at their disposal. Labour, and/or cash income to secure additional labour, appears to be the most important constraint to production. This tends to suggest that for future technological interventions in agricultural systems of the rural poor, consideration will have to be given to inputs which optimize the use of family/household labour. The escalating population growth suggests that focus on women's health and incomes could significantly and qualitatively improve the prospects for the adoption of new and improved technology in areas such as pest and vector control.

A Study on the Introduction of Cassava

It has been said that there was no problem of food production in Nigeria until the 1960's. This country could produce enough food to satisfy her domestic demand which had increased very rapidly in coincidence with the rapid growth of population. Accordingly, numerous studies have been devoted to discover a mechanism of rapid food production.An influential hypothesis set up mainly by economists and agricultural economists is the land-surplus-economy model which postulates that the increased food production in Nigeria may have been achieved by the mobilization of unused or underutilized land with relatively small additional labor input. On the other hand, some geographers have assumed that the growth of food production can be achieved by land-intensive cultivation techniques which have been developed without a change in farm implements.In this paper, the author attempts to clarify the process of the growth of cassava production in Eastern Nigeria, hopefully, in support of the latter explanation. Originally, cassava was introduced from tropical America. It was considered to be a food inferior to yam. When farmers began to cultivate cassava, they had to change land-use pattern (increased inter- or mixed-cropping, use of manure, more developed crop complex). The author believes that they could manage it with relatively small additional input and that this is why farmers could feed a larger population under traditional methods of cultivation before the 1960's, particularly in Eastern Nigeria.

Substitution of labour and energy in agriculture and options for growth.

The opportunities for human labour and energy substitution in agricultural growth are investigated, with special attention to the Netherlands. From the technical aspect labour and energy can be viewed as the two basic production factors of agriculture. Methods of calculating labour and energy requirements are first discussed, beginning with the production means employed up to the final product of agriculture. Limited quantities of additional labour and/or energy are required in order to achieve the maximal quantity of production per ha. agricultural land. The function which brings the demand for both these resources into relation at the production level, is presented under two limiting situations: (1) the minimal additional amount of labour required with unlimited energy available, and (2) the minimal amount of energy with unlimited labour available (the typical situation in most developing countries). With the help of these functions, functions of the same yield level are constructed for the variable input of the two factors; these factors show the opportunities for a substitution of labour and energy in the agricultural production process at different yield levels. The form of this "growth path" shows that there exists a majority of production situations in which the yield per unit of additional energy, the yield per unit of additional labour input and the yield per area unit with increasing input of labour and energy per ha. increases, while at the same time the additional energy input per unit of additional labour input decreases. (Abstract retrieved from CAB Abstracts by CABI’s permission)