Addition Of Locust Bean Gum Research Articles

Three-Dimensional Printing of Red Algae Biopolymers: Effect of Locust Bean Gum on Rheology and Processability.

Seaweeds, rich in high-value polysaccharides with thickening/gelling properties (e.g., agar, carrageenan, and alginate), are extensively used in the food industry for texture customization and enhancement. However, conventional extraction methods for these hydrocolloids often involve potentially hazardous chemicals and long extraction times. In this study, three red seaweed species (Chondrus crispus, Gelidium Corneum, and Gracilaria gracilis) commercialized as food ingredients by local companies were chosen for their native gelling biopolymers, which were extracted using water-based methodologies (i.e., (1) hydration at room temperature; (2) stirring at 90 °C; and (3) centrifugation at 40 °C) for production of sustainable food gels. The potential use of these extracts as bioinks was assessed employing an extrusion-based 3D printer. The present work aimed to study the gelation process, taken place during printing, and assess the effectiveness of the selected green extraction method in producing gels. To improve the definition of the printed gel, two critical printing parameters were investigated: the addition of locust bean gum (LBG) at different concentrations (0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, and 2.5%) and printing temperature (30, 40, 60, and 80 °C). Rheological results from a controlled-stress rheometer indicated that gels derived from G. corneum and G. gracilis exhibited a lower gel strength (lower G' and G″) and excessive material spreading during deposition (lower viscosity) than C. crispus. Thus, G' was around 5 and 70 times higher for C. crispus gels than for G. corneum and G. gracilis, respectively. When increasing LBG concentration (0.5 to 2.5% w/w) and lowering the printing temperature (80 to 30 °C), an enhanced gel matrix definition for G. corneum and G. gracilis gels was found. In contrast, gels from C. crispus demonstrated greater stability and were less influenced by these parameters, showcasing the potential of the seaweed to develop sustainable clean label food gels. Eventually, these results highlight the feasibility of using algal-based extracts obtained through a green procedure as bioinks where LBG was employed as a synergic ingredient.

The addition of polysaccharide gums to Aronia melanocarpa purees modulates the bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds and gut microbiota: A multiomics data fusion approach following in vitro digestion and fermentation

This study aimed to determine how the addition of gellan, guar, locust bean, and xanthan gums affected the polyphenol profile of Aronia melanocarpa puree and the human gut microbiota after in vitro gastrointestinal digestion and large intestine fermentation. The different gums distinctively affected the content and bioaccessibility of phenolics in Aronia puree, as outlined by untargeted metabolomics. The addition of locust bean gum increased the levels of low-molecular-weight phenolics and phenolic acids after digestion. Gellan and guar gums enhanced phenolic acids' bioaccessibility after fermentation. Interactions between digestion products and fecal bacteria altered the composition of the microbiota, with the greatest impact of xanthan. Locust bean gum promoted the accumulation of different taxa with health-promoting properties. Our findings shed light on the added-value properties of commercial gums as food additives, promoting a distinctive increase of polyphenol bioaccessibility and shifting the gut microbiota distribution, depending on their composition and structural features.

A Study on the Structural and Digestive Properties of Rice Starch-Hydrocolloid Complexes Treated with Heat-Moisture Treatment.

Rice starch-hydrophilic colloid complexes (SHCs) were prepared by incorporating xanthan gum and locust bean gum into natural rice starch. Subsequently, they underwent hygrothermal treatment (H-SHC) to investigate their structural and digestive properties with varying colloid types and added amounts of H-SHC. The results demonstrated that heat-moisture treatment (HMT) led to an increase in resistant starch (RS) content in rice starch. This effect was more pronounced after the addition of hydrophilic colloid, causing RS content to surge from 8.42 ± 0.39% to 38.36 ± 3.69%. Notably, the addition of locust bean gum had a more significant impact on enhancing RS content, and the RS content increased with the addition of hydrophilic colloids. Enzyme digestion curves indicated that H-SHC displayed a lower equilibrium concentration (C∞), hydrolysis index (HI), and gluconeogenesis index (eGI). Simultaneously, HMT reduced the solubility and swelling power of starch. However, the addition of hydrophilic colloid led to an increase in the solubility and swelling power of the samples. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that hydrophilic colloid encapsulated the starch granules, affording them protection. X-ray diffraction (XRD) showed that HMT resulted in the decreased crystallinity of the starch granules, a trend mitigated by the addition of hydrophilic colloid. Infrared (IR) results demonstrated no formation of new covalent bonds but indicated increased short-range ordering in H-SHC. Rapid viscosity analysis and differential scanning calorimetry indicated that HMT substantially decreased peak viscosity and starch breakdown, while it significantly delayed the onset, peak, and conclusion temperatures. This effect was further amplified by the addition of colloids. Rheological results indicated that H-SHC displayed lower values for G', G″, and static rheological parameters compared to natural starch. In summary, this study offers valuable insights into the development of healthy, low-GI functional foods.

Modification of mechanical, rheological and structural properties of agar hydrogel using xanthan and locust bean gum

Agar is a valuable seaweed hydrocolloid that can form a high-firmness thermoreversible gel. With the increasing demand for vegetarian meals, agar can be used as a gelatin substitute with some modifications. In this study, we investigated the structural, mechanical, and rheological properties of a compound hydrogel using the agar/locust bean/xanthan gum (ALX). The different concentrations of hydrocolloids were optimized based on comparing the results of texture profile analysis of samples with high-bloom gelatin. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry and scanning electron microscopy tests confirmed the interaction between agar, locust bean and xanthan gum. The textural analysis results showed that the addition of locust bean gum (LBG) and xanthan gum (XG) to agar could significantly increase the springiness of agar hydrogel (AG) from 0.92 ± 0.00 to 1.00 ± 0.00, also decrease its hardness from 702.11 ± 5.99 to 343.31 ± 20.23 g (p < 0.05). Moreover, a remarkable decrease was shown in the syneresis degree of AG from 2.33 ± 0.02% to 0.52 ± 0.00%. All behaviors of the optimum hydrogel indicated the effective interaction of LBG and XG with AG which made the final compound hydrogel a promising alternative to high-bloom gelatin.

A comparison of the impacts of different polysaccharides on the sono-physico-chemical consequences of ultrasonic-assisted modifications

This study aimed to examine the sono-physico-chemical effects of ultrasound (UND) and its impact on the conjugate rates of morin (MOI) following the addition of polysaccharides in various conditions. In comparison to the control group, the incorporation of quaternary ammonium chitosan decreased the rate of MOI conjugation by 17.38%, but the addition of locust bean gum enhanced the grafting rate by 29.89%. Notably, the highest degree of myofibrillar protein (MRN) unfolding (fluorescence intensity: 114435.50), the most stable state (−44.98 mV), and the greatest specific surface area (393.06 cm2/cm3) were observed in the UMP/LBG group. The outcomes of atomic force microscopy and scanning electron microscopy revealed that the inclusion of locust bean gum led to a different microscopic morphology than the other two polysaccharides, which may be the primary cause of the strongest sono-physico-chemical effects of the system. This work demonstrated that acoustic settings can be tuned based on the characteristics of polysaccharides to maximize the advantages of sono-physico-chemical impacts in UND-assisted MOI processing.

Effect of Ultrasound-Assisted Freezing on the Crystal Structure of Mango Sorbet

In this study, the effect of ultrasound-assisted immersion freezing (UAF) of mango sorbet in comparison to conventional freezer freezing, on freezing course and created crystal structure, was studied. The scope of work included the preparation of a sorbet mixture prepared on the basis of frozen mango fruit with the addition of locust bean gum (LBG), guar gum and a commercial mix of carrageenan without the addition of stabilizers, and freezing it using a conventional freezer and ultrasound-assisted freezing equipment, with variable operating parameters (21.5 kHz and 40 kHz—continuous or chopped mode). Then, the freezing time and the crystal structure of the frozen samples (a microscopy analysis) were examined. US-assisted freezing reduced the time of the process for stabilized samples of the sorbet. It was also proven that, proper stabilization with the combination of US treatment results in the formation of favorable crystal structure. Stabilized sorbet subjected to US action at a frequency of 21.5 kHz in chopped mode was characterized by the most uniform crystal structure, consisting of crystals with the smallest diameters among all the tested samples; the equivalent diameter was 9 µm, while for the stabilized control it was 25 µm.

Gel formation of scallop (Patinopecten yessoensis) male gonad hydrolysates combined with κ‐carrageenan and locust bean gum

AbstractThe gel properties and microstructure of scallop male gonad hydrolysates (SMGHs) were investigated by combing with κ‐carrageenan (κ‐C) and locust bean gum (LBG). It was shown that the initial elastic module of SMGHs/κ‐C 0.1 Hz got marked improvement from 202.3 Pa to 326.7 Pa and the melting temperature also increased 6°C with the addition of LBG. According to the data of low‐field nuclear magnetic resonance, the relaxation time T23 markedly reduced in SMGHs/κ‐C/LBG, representing the migration of water might result in a strong bind among SMGHs, κ‐C, and LBG. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed the existence of hydrogen bonding between LBG and SMGHs/κ‐C. Low‐temperature scanning electron microscopy showed that the SMGHs/κ‐C/LBG ternary complexes possessed smaller voids and more dense network structures. These results could provide more possibilities for the application of SMGHs and polysaccharide complexes in functional hydrogel development.Novelty impact statementWe evaluated the gel and microstructure properties of ternary composite gel consisted of protein hydrolysates from male gonad of scallop (Patinopecten yessoensis) (SMGHs), κ‐carrageenan (κ‐C), and locust bean gum (LBG). The results showed that the addition of κ‐C and LBG significantly improved the gel properties of SMGHs.

Impact of Guar Gum and Locust Bean Gum Addition on the Pasting, Rheological Properties, and Freeze-Thaw Stability of Rice Starch Gel.

Improving the gel texture and stability of rice starch (RS) by natural hydrocolloids is important for the development of gluten-free starch-based products. In this paper, the effects of guar gum and locust bean gum on the pasting, rheological properties, and freeze–thaw stability of rice starch were investigated by using a rapid visco analyzer, rheometer, and texture analyzer. Both gums can modify the pasting properties, revealed by an increment in the peak, trough, and final viscosities, and prevent the short-term retrogradation tendency of RS. Dynamic viscoelasticity measurements also indicated that the starch–gum system exhibits superior viscoelastic properties compared with starch alone, as revealed by its higher storage modulus (G′). Compared with the control, the hysteresis loop area of the guar gum-containing system and locust bean gum-containing system was reduced by 37.7% and 24.2%, respectively, indicating that the addition of gums could enhance shear resistance and structure recovery properties. The thermodynamic properties indicated that both gums retard short-term retrogradation as well as long-term retrogradation of the RS gels. Interestingly, the textural properties and freeze–thaw stability of the RS gel were significantly improved by the addition of galactomannans (p < 0.05), and guar gum was more effective than locust bean gum, which may be due to the different mannose to galactose ratio. The results provide alternatives for gluten-free recipes with improved texture properties and freeze–thaw stability.

Effect of interactions of locust bean gum and rosehip juice on the physical properties of gum tragacanth composite films

The aim of the study was to demonstrate the synergistic effect of natural polysaccharide hydrocolloids of locust bean gum and tragacanth gum combined with rosehip juice. It was shown that tragacantha gum has an excellent film-forming properties at low concentration and forms water-soluble, thin and transparent edible films with high application potential, which was demonstrated by selected physical properties of composite films obtained from a mixture of gum tragacanth and locust bean gum. Optical (color and opacity), thermal (thermogravimetric analysis), water vapor permeability and sorption kinetics were determined. The thickness of the films depends on the composition of the films, the process conditions, as well as the application techniques. The addition of locust bean gum resulted in an increase in the water content and consequently more elastic and less brittle gum tragacanth films. Films made only of gum tragacanth were characterized by greater hygroscopicity, as opposed to composite films. As the concentration of gum tragacanth increases, the value of water vapor permeability also increases, and the share of locust bean gum in the films caused the permeability to decrease. Composite films had a lighter color compared to those of pure gum tragacanth, and the carob contributed to a more transparent film and slower thermal degradation. In the films obtained, a synergistic effect was observed between the biopolymers in all the ratios used, and the addition of locust bean gum and rosehip juice had a strong influence on the properties of the obtained edible films. Practical applications The potential of using gum tragacanth to create edible films and coatings through their appropriate modification and optimization of the composition ratio of the created composites can become a challenge for their use in the food packaging industry. This study will be constructive for further research work focused on films and coatings and their application as protective coatings or bio-based packaging films.

Rheological and structural properties of sodium caseinate as influenced by locust bean gum and κ-carrageenan

The interactions between sodium caseinate and polysaccharide were investigated by choosing both neutral (locust bean gum) and anionic polysaccharides (κ-carrageenan). The linear and non-linear rheological properties, ζ-potential and structures of the sodium caseinate/gum mixtures were evaluated. The mixtures all displayed shear-thinning phenomenon, and the increase of either locust bean gum or κ-carrageenan content led to the increase of storage (G′) and loss (G″) moduli. The large amplitude oscillation shear (LAOS) test and Fourier-transform have been successfully used to detect the slight rheological differences caused by microstructure changes. Increasing levels of κ-carrageenan led to critical strain decreased of the mixture, but not for locust bean gum. The sodium caseinate/locust bean gum mixtures behaved as “hard gel”, while the sodium caseinate/κ-carrageenan mixtures behaved as “soft gel” in Fourier-transform rheology. Changes in viscoelasticity under large strain were illustrated using elastic and viscous Lissajous curves, which were correlated to the microstructural change within the network of the mixtures. The zeta-potential values were significantly decreased in the presence of κ-carrageenan, while the addition of locust bean gum had no significant influence. Phase separation was found more dominant to change the structure than the protein network formation in the sodium caseinate/locust bean gum mixtures. However, protein network formation was the factor to dominate the structure forming of sodium caseinate/κ-carrageenan mixtures with electrostatic forces and hydrogen bonding.

Extraction and application of chia mucilage (Salvia hispanica L.) and locust bean gum (Ceratonia siliqua L.) in goat milk frozen dessert.

A complete factorial design (23) was used to determine the influence of chia mucilage concentration (CM), locust bean gum (LBG) and base maturation time (BMT) on 14 formulations of goat milk frozen dessert. Chia mucilage was obtained by chia grain hydration (1:40) under stirring for 2h, at 80°C and pH of 9.0. The samples were centrifuged, as well as lyophilised to compare yields. The extraction yield of lyophilised CM was lower than 10%. The addition of LBG and CM at higher levels, influenced by BMT, increased the moisture content and the apparent viscosity of the base mixture. These formulations presented higher values for texture and lower of overrun due to the difficulty of incorporating and stabilising bubbles during whipping and freezing processes. The melting rate was also dependent on the variables analysed, and a delay in melting was observed, even in the formulations with lower fat content. CM increased the luminosity parameter proportionally to its content and provided a significant reduction of fat (up to 3.10g 100g-1) and energy value. The application of CM reduced the texture value, which was an interesting technological characteristic for frozen dessert.

Rheological characterizations of concentrated binary gum mixtures with xanthan gum and galactomannans

The steady and dynamic shear rheological properties of binary gum mixtures with xanthan gum (XG) and galactomannans (guar gum (GG) and locust bean gum (LBG)) were examined in a concentrated solution (1% w/w) as a function of gum mixing ratio (100/0, 75/25, 50/50, and 0/100). All samples, except for individual GG and LBG, showed high shear-thinning behavior with yield stress. The values of flow (K, ηa,50, and σoc) and dynamic rheological parameters (G′ and G″) of XG-GG and XG-LBG mixtures were significantly higher compared to XG alone, indicating that the flow and viscoelastic properties of binary gum mixtures were greatly affected by the addition of GG and LBG. The maximum elasticity synergistic interaction for XG-galactomannans mixtures was observed at a mixing ratio of 50/50, showing a greatly positive deviation between measured and calculated values of G′. These results suggest that the synergistic effect of GG and LBG addition on rheological properties of XG appears to be due to intermolecular interaction occurred between XG and galactomannans, as confirmed by dynamic rheological properties.

Effects of locust bean gum on the structural and rheological properties of resistant corn starch.

In this study, interactions between resistant corn starch (RS) (5% w/w) and locust bean gum (LBG) (0, 0.125, 0.25, 0.50 and 1.0% w/v) on the viscoelastic, pasting and morphological characteristics of aqueous dispersions were evaluated. Results showed that the storage modulus (G'), loss modulus (G''), and apparent viscosity values of starch/gum (RS/LBG) mixtures were enhanced with the addition of LBG, and the rheograms demonstrated a biphasic behavior. RS/LBG samples were predominantly either solid like (G'>G'') or viscous (G''>G'), depending on the added concentration level of LBG. Gum addition also caused higher peak viscosity, breakdown and total set back of RS/LBG mixtures. A strong correlation between rheological and structural properties was found. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) images confirmed the transition of starch particles from a scattered angular shape to clustered structures cross-linked by dense aggregate junction zones justifying the observed changes in rheological properties.

Thixotropic properties of the normal potato starch – Locust bean gum blends

The aim was to study the rheological, especially thixo- and antithixotropic properties of normal potato starch (NPS) with the addition of locust bean gum (LBG) depending on the pasting temperature, the starch concentration and the amount of LBG. All the pastes under study were rheologically unstable, non-Newtonian, shear thinning fluids. The increase in the LBG content obstructed pasting of the starch granules and increased viscosity of the pastes. In a vast majority of cases obstruction in swelling granules and, hence, higher amount of non-pasted granules evoked thixotropy. In turn, a higher numbers of well swollen granules and, hence pasted granules led to antithixotropy. Apart from the concentration of both polysaccharides and pasting temperature the results depended also on the measuring method applied.

Effect of LBG on the gel properties of acid-induced SPI gels

The effect of the addition of locust bean gum (LBG) on the rheological properties, microstructure and fractal dimension of glycono-δ-lactone induced soy protein isolate (SPI) gels were studied (LBG concentration = 0.01%–0.04%, SPI concentration = 6%). Both the small and large amplitude oscillatory shear measurements were carried out to characterize the rheological properties of SPI and SPI-LBG gels. The G′ of SPI-LBG gels was highly frequency dependent within the frequency range of 6.28 rad/s to 62.8 rad/s. Fourier transform rheology was used to analyze the higher harmonic signals from nonlinear stress waveform. SPI-LBG gels showed typical Type I network behavior similar to that of SPI gel at strain amplitude >2% in LAOS tests. Creep/recovery tests showed that the addition of LBG increased both the elastic and viscous moduli of SPI-LBG gels. The image of the microstructure captured by confocal laser scanning microscopic (CLSM) was used to determine the fractal dimension. The protein network structure of SPI-LBG gels showed greatly bigger pore volume, better scale behavior than SPI gels, and the chaos and complexity of the protein aggregates in SPI-LBG gels were much less than that in SPI gel. LBG was found to play an important role in a SPI-LBG gel system.

Synergistic interactions of locust bean gum with whey proteins: Effect on physicochemical and microstructural properties of whey protein-based films

Locust bean gum synergistic interactions with whey proteins are widely described in terms of functional properties. The aim of this work is to assess how these interactions affect whey protein-based film properties. Blended films were manufactured using whey protein isolate (WPI), four different concentrations levels of locust bean gum (LBG) and two different thermal treatments. A rheological study was performed to assess interaction between WPI and LBG. The influence of glycerol on WPI/LBG interactions was also verified. Barrier, mechanical, and optical properties, as well as microstructure, solubility and moisture sorption behavior of films were evaluated. The results show that interaction between WPI and LBG and more severe heat treatments provide stronger, more flexible and less soluble films with lower permeability to carbon dioxide and oxygen and lower transparency. These findings suggest that the addition of locust bean gum to WPI can be used to tune the properties of WPI-based edible films to meet specific food packaging and edible coating needs.

Strategies to improve the mechanical strength and water resistance of agar films for food packaging applications

Agar films possess several properties adequate for food packaging applications. However, their high cost-production and quality variations caused by physiological and environmental factors affecting wild seaweeds make them less attractive for industries. In this work, native (NA) and alkali-modified (AA) agars obtained from sustainably grown seaweeds (integrated multi-trophic aquaculture) were mixed with locust bean gum (LBG) to make ‘knife-coated’ films with fixed final concentration (1wt%) and variable agar/LBG ratios. Agar films were easier to process upon LBG addition (viscosity increase and gelling character decrease of the film-forming solutions observed by dynamic oscillatory and steady shear measurements). The mechanical properties and water resistance were optimal for films with 50 and/or 75% LBG contents and best in the case of NA (cheaper to extract). These findings can help reduce the cost-production of agar packaging films. Moreover, the controlled cultivation of seaweeds can provide continuous and reliable feedstock for transformation industries.

검류를 첨가하여 제조한 비지 젤화물의 물리적 품질특성

The physical properties of jellified soybean curd residue (Biji) with the addition of various gums were investigated to optimize the direct availability of a by-product of the tofu production process. The lightness (L value) of the jellified Biji prepared with various gums was approximately 77~80, regardless of the concentration of gum used. Especially at the concentration of 0.1% and 0.3%, a pectin showed a significantly higher value compared with other gelling agents (carrageenan and agar). The strength of samples prepared on the basis of carrageenan showed the value of 335~569 <TEX>$g/cm^2$</TEX> and 234~335 <TEX>$g/cm^2$</TEX> according to the addition of locust bean gum and xanthan gum, respectively. On the other hand, the samples made with pectin and agar were 134~272 <TEX>$g/cm^2$</TEX> and 50~215 <TEX>$g/cm^2$</TEX>, respectively. Where locust bean gum was used as a viscous agent, the adhesiveness of sample prepared by adding carrageenan was greater than those made with pectin or agar. The values were -6.0~-11.0 g, -2.7~-10.2 g and -3.7~-7.0 g, respectively. Overall, the strength and adhesiveness of samples according to increase of the added amount of Biji showed constantly increasing trend regardless of the type of gelling agent used. In the sample containing carrageenan this trend was most noticeable.

Rheology and synergy of κ-carrageenan/locust bean gum/konjac glucomannan gels

The rheology and melting of mixed polysaccharide gels containing konjac glucomannan (KGM), locust bean gum (LBG) and κ-carrageenan (KC) were studied. Synergy-type peaks in the Young's modulus at optimal mixing ratios were found for both KC/LBG and KC/KGM binary gels at a fixed total polysaccharide content (1:5.5 for LBG:KC and 1:7 for KGM:KC). The Young's modulus peak for KC/KGM was higher than for KC/LBG gels. The same stoichiometric mixing ratios were found when either LBG or KGM was added to KC at a fixed KC concentration, where the Young's modulus increased up to additions at the stoichiometric ratio, but leveled off at higher LBG or KGM additions. Addition of KGM or LBG to the 2-component gels beyond the stoichiometric (optimal) mixing ratio at a fixed total polysaccharide content led to a decrease in the Young's modulus and an increase in the rupture strain and stress in extension, and both trends were stronger for KGM than for LBG.Differential scanning calorimetry of the gels revealed the development of a second melting peak for the KC/KGM gels that increased with KGM addition up to higher KGM contents than the stoichiometric ratio. For the KC/LBG gels, only a slight broadening and shift to a higher temperature were observed. When the three polysaccharides were mixed, the DSC endotherms reflected only the main features of the interaction between KC and KGM, and the same was true for the fracture in extension. The different trends led to higher Young's moduli at intermediate KC concentrations when a 1:1 addition of LBG:KGM was used than when either only KGM or LBG was added at a fixed total polysaccharide concentration. This suggests that no special interactions arise when the three polysaccharides are mixed and the binding mechanisms are simply a sum of the bindings observed for KC/KGM and KC/LBG two-component gels.

Textural properties of model food sauces: Correlation between simulated mastication and sensory evaluation methods

The ability of a recently developed simulated mastication method to characterize the rheological properties of model food sauces was determined. This method uses integrated compression–shear–decompression motions to mimic the motions of the tongue against the palate, and includes the addition of saliva. Model sauces contained swollen starch granules (3.75%), fat droplets (0, 5, 10, and 15%), and hydrophilic polymer (0 or 0.2% locust bean gum). The texture of the sauces was characterized by the simulated mastication method, shear viscometry, and sensory methods, and the parameters derived from the instrumental analysis were correlated to those derived by sensory analysis. The optical properties (lightness) and microstructure (light scattering and microscopy) of the sauces were also measured. There was a good correlation (r2>0.95) between the “consistency” (maximum peak force) derived from the simulated mastication method and the “viscosity/thickness” derived from sensory analysis. In both cases, the consistency of the sauces increased with increasing fat content and with locust bean gum addition. The microstructures of sauces masticated within a human mouth and within the simulated mastication instrument were similar. Overall our results suggest that the simulated mastication method can be used to characterize the textural properties of semi-solid foods within the mouth.