Cases Of Acute Rheumatic Fever Research Articles

Complete atrioventricular block in an adolescent with acute rheumatic fever: a case report

Acute rheumatic fever (ARF) is an autoimmune, multiorgan inflammatory disease that occurs in genetically susceptible individuals after group A-hemolytic streptococcal infection. Carditis and polyarthritis are the most common symptoms of ARF. Repeated streptococcal infections can cause recurrent valvulitis and valvular heart disease.
 Prolonged atrioventricular conduction (first-degree heart block) is a well-known symptom of ARF, occurring in one-fifth to three-fifths of patients. This condition is a minor criterion for diagnosing ARF based on Jones's criteria. Advanced conduction delay, such as a second-degree or a complete atrioventricular (AV) block, is a rare condition of ARF that can occur before symptoms like carditis, polyarthritis, and Sydenham chorea appear. We present a case of ARF in an adolescent with complete AV block.

Outcomes of possible and probable rheumatic fever: A cohort study using northern Australian register data, 2013-2019.

In Australia, there is a high burden of acute rheumatic fever (ARF) among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. Clinical diagnostic criteria can result in a diagnosis of 'definite', 'probable' or 'possible' ARF and outcomes range from recovery to severe rheumatic heart disease (RHD). We compared outcomes by ARF diagnosis, where the main outcome was defined as disease progression from: possible to probable ARF, definite ARF or RHD; probable to definite ARF or RHD; or definite ARF to definite ARF recurrence or RHD. Data were extracted from the Northern Territory RHD register for Indigenous Australians with an initial diagnosis of ARF during the 5.5-year study period (01/01/2013-30/06/2019). Descriptive statistics were used to describe cohort characteristics, probability of survival, and cumulative incidence risk of disease progression. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to determine whether time to disease progression differed according to ARF diagnosis. Sub-analyses on RHD outcome, clinical manifestations, and antibiotic adherence were also performed. In total there were 913 cases with an initial ARF diagnosis. Of these, 92 (13%) experienced disease progression. The probability of disease progression significantly differed between ARF diagnoses (p = 0.0043; log rank test). Cumulative incidence risk of disease progression at 5.5 years was 33.6% (95% CI 23.6-46.2) for definite, 13.5% (95% CI 8.8-20.6) for probable and 11.4% (95% CI 6.0-21.3) for possible ARF. Disease progression was 2.19 times more likely in those with definite ARF than those with possible ARF (p = 0.026). Progression to RHD was reported in 52/732 (7%) of ARF cases with normal baseline echocardiography. There was a significantly higher risk of progression from no RHD to RHD if the initial diagnosis was definite compared to possible ARF (p<0.001). These data provide a useful way to stratify risk and guide prognosis for people diagnosed with ARF and can help inform practice.

A Surveillance Study of the Serotypes of Streptococci in the Throat and Skin Lesions in Acute Rheumatic Fever and Rheumatic Heart Disease Patients and their Families

Abstract Objectives: The objectives of this study were to determine the colonization of the throat and skin among patients of rheumatic heart disease (RHD) or acute rheumatic fever (ARF) and to elucidate the different Lancefield serotypes of streptococci (Group A, Group C, and Group G) among them. Methods: The prospective observational surveillance study was conducted from November 2016 to March 2018 among 161 enrolled family members belonging to 30 families with one of their patients being diagnosed with RHD/ARF. The outcome measures were period prevalence of serotypes of streptococci, streptococcal colonization of throat and skin lesions, and association of age and antibody titers with RHD/ARF. Results: Out of 30 families enrolled in our study, positive throat (n = 18)/skin (n = 1) cultures were found in 7 families (n = 19). The cultures were positive only for Group A streptococci (GAS), while none of the samples showed positivity for Group C or G serotypes. Overall period prevalence for our study period was 3.2%. Among the 18 members positive for GAS throat culture, 13 (72.2%) belonged to the age group &lt;15 years (P &lt; 0.025). The positive cultures in the throat sample were more in the ARF families than RHD families (P &lt; 0.001). There was no association of culture positivity with antibody titer (P &gt; 0.05). Conclusion: In conclusion, we found only GAS colonization in significantly higher proportion among the family members of cases of ARF in comparison to RHD. Rather there was no case of Group C and G streptococci colonization in cases or family members of RHD/ARF.

Frequency of rheumatic diseases in patients with familial Mediterranean fever

Purpose: Mutations in the Mediterranean FeVer (MEFV) gene, which causes familial Mediterranean fever (FMF), may also cause the emergence of other specific rheumatic diseases. This study aims to determine the frequency of other rheumatologic diseases in paediatric FMF patients, evaluate whether there are clinical and genetic differences between those with and without concomitant rheumatologic diseases, and compare the data with previous studies.&#x0D; Materials and methods: The files of FMF patients who were followed up at the paediatric rheumatology department were reviewed retrospectively. Demographic data, MEFV mutations, treatment, disease severity scores, and concomitant rheumatic diseases were recorded from the files.&#x0D; Results: There were 303 FMF patients (154 female/149 male). The mean age at diagnosis was 7.04±3.9 years. The mean disease duration was 5.33±3.13 years. In the cohort, 41 FMF patients (13.5%) were diagnosed with another rheumatic disease. There were 22 cases of juvenile idiopathic arthritis (53.6%), seven cases of vasculitis (17%), six cases of periodic fever aphthous stomatitis and adenitis syndrome (14.6%), three cases of Behçet disease (7.3%), two cases of acute rheumatic fever (4.8%), and one case of systemic lupus erythematosus (2.4%). 32 of these 41 FMF patients (78%) had the M694V mutation (homozygous in 11, heterozygous in 21). Disease activity scores PRAS and ISSF scores were higher in FMF with rheumatic diseases (p=0.002 and p

Evaluation of a Community-Led Program for Primordial and Primary Prevention of Rheumatic Fever in Remote Northern Australia.

Environmental factors including household crowding and inadequate washing facilities underpin recurrent streptococcal infections in childhood that cause acute rheumatic fever (ARF) and subsequent rheumatic heart disease (RHD). No community-based ‘primordial’-level interventions to reduce streptococcal infection and ARF rates have been reported from Australia previously. We conducted a study at three Australian Aboriginal communities aiming to reduce infections including skin sores and sore throats, usually caused by Group A Streptococci, and ARF. Data were collected for primary care diagnoses consistent with likely or potential streptococcal infection, relating to ARF or RHD or related to environmental living conditions. Rates of these diagnoses during a one-year Baseline Phase were compared with a three-year Activity Phase. Participants were children or adults receiving penicillin prophylaxis for ARF. Aboriginal community members were trained and employed to share knowledge about ARF prevention, support reporting and repairs of faulty health-hardware including showers and provide healthcare navigation for families focusing on skin sores, sore throat and ARF. We hypothesized that infection-related diagnoses would increase through greater recognition, then decrease. We enrolled 29 participants and their families. Overall infection-related diagnosis rates increased from Baseline (mean rate per-person-year 1.69 [95% CI 1.10–2.28]) to Year One (2.12 [95% CI 1.17–3.07]) then decreased (Year Three: 0.72 [95% CI 0.29–1.15]) but this was not statistically significant (p = 0.064). Annual numbers of first-known ARF decreased, but numbers were small: there were six cases of first-known ARF during Baseline, then five, 1, 0 over the next three years respectively. There was a relationship between household occupancy and numbers (p = 0.018), but not rates (p = 0.447) of infections. This first Australian ARF primordial prevention study provides a feasible model with encouraging findings.

Streptococcal Pharyngitis and Rheumatic Fever

Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A Streptococcus) causes a variety of diseases, from benign self-limiting infections of the skin or throat to lethal infections of soft tissue accompanied by multi-organ failure. GAS is one of significant species among Gram-positive pathogens which is responsible for several suppurative infections and non-suppurative sequelae. They also cause pharyngitis, streptococcal toxic shock syndrome (STSS), necrotizing fasciitis and other diseases. Currently, global burden of RF / RHD is undervalued. In 2010, RF and RHD were estimated as 15.6 million cases and deaths around 200,000 annually. Laboratory diagnosis includes cultural techniques, serology, PYR test, Bacitracin susceptibility test and antibiotic resistance testing helps in differentiating the Streptococcus pyogenes from other groups of Streptococci. Most of the Acute Rheumatic Fever cases gets missed or does not present in the initial stage rather it has been developed into advanced Rheumatic Heart Disease condition. Modified Jones criteria in 2015 will be helpful especially to the low risk population as it is challenging because of limited access to primary health care, diagnosis of streptococcal disease. In addition to this revised criteria, diagnosis still relies on clinical diagnostic algorithm. Vaccines based on M protein and T antigens are continuing to evolve with different results. Ongoing vaccine development is still challenging for the GAS research community, it will make a positive and lasting impact on the peoples globally.

Acute Rheumatic Fever Cases Presented with Enthesitis: A Different View on Acute Rheumatic Fever

Background: Acute rheumatic fever (ARF) is a non-suppurative inflammatory disease that develops after group A Beta hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis, primarily involving the heart, joint, central nervous system, skin and subcutaneous tissue. Today, Jones criteria; that were modified in 2015, are used for diagnosis. Our aim in this study is to examine the patients diagnosed with acute rheumatic fever in our clinic and presented with enthesitis.&#x0D; Methods: The type of study is case report. Five patients who were admitted to the Pediatric Rheumatology Clinic of Selcuk University Faculty of Medicine were diagnosed with acute rheumatic fever and presented with enthesitis, between 2017- 2019 were examined retrospectively. Their demographic, clinical laboratory and echocardiographic data were examined. The presence of enthesitis in all patients was established with one or more of the options of clinical examination, ultrasonography, magnetic resonance imaging, and/or orthopedics opinion. &#x0D; Results: While the clinic of the patients improved with the treatment for enthesitis, acute phase reactants did not fall and additional clinical findings appeared. Our observations suggested that acute rheumatic fever could apply to us not only with arthritis and arthralgia, but also with the enthesitis clinic. Therefore, we think that if the laboratory data are compatible among the differential diagnoses in patients presenting with enthesitis, acute rheumatic fever should also be considered, and careful physical examination and echocardiography should be performed for this purpose.&#x0D; Conclusion: In relation to the pathogenesis of the rheumatological diseases, new clinical situations are emerging day by day, and in this way, the diseases are better understood and classified. In conclusion, we think that ARF can be encountered not only with arthritis and arthralgia but also with enthesitis clinics, and echocardiographic imaging should not be ignored in patients with enthesitis clinic who have high acute phase reactants and who do not meet the enthesitis-related juvenile idiopathic arthritis criteria.

M12. Network Meta-Analysis about Cytokine Gene Functional Polymorphisms Towards the Susceptibility and Severity of Acute Rheumatic Fever and Rheumatic Heart Disease among Asian and Non-Asian People

Abstract Background Great diversity among public hereditary variants may play a role in the susceptibility and severity of acute rheumatic fever (ARF)/rheumatic heart disease (RHD). Cytokine gene polymorphisms may contribute to the disease-associated cytokine imbalance. However, to the best of our knowledge, there is no existing meta-analysis concerning an association of the cytokine gene functional polymorphisms with the susceptibility / severity of ARF/RHD. Aims To investigate the potential association between cytokine gene functional polymorphisms of TNF-α, TGF-β, IL-10, IL-6 and IL-1β and the susceptibility and severity of ARF/RHD. Methods Comprehensive and structured search on Pubmed/Medline, Embase, EBSCO, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials was performed. Statistical analyses were performed using STATA. First, we performed direct pairwise meta-analysis. Then, a network meta-analysis was performed with the consistency model to compare the genetic models of different cytokine gene polymorphisms. Results Evidence derived from the meta-analysis of 24 retrospective cohort and case-control studies identified that elevated serum levels of TNF-α have been observed in ARF cases, occurring as a result of a SNP (-308G&amp;gt;A) in the promoter site of the TNF-α gene. Our results also suggest that IL-1β (-511) C/T polymorphism, TGF-β1 [rs1800469], and IL-1β [rs2853550] single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) contributed to the susceptibility of ARF/RHD. Egger’s test did not demonstrate significant asymmetry in the dominant. Conclusion In summary, the polymorphism model increased the risk of RHD in the dominant genetic model, recessive genetic model, homozygote model and allelic genetic model among non-Asians while, recessive genetic model and homozygote model among Asians.

Incidence of acute rheumatic fever in northern and western Uganda: a prospective, population-based study

Acute rheumatic fever is infrequently diagnosed in sub-Saharan African countries despite the high prevalence of rheumatic heart disease. We aimed to determine the incidence of acute rheumatic fever in northern and western Uganda. For our prospective epidemiological study, we established acute rheumatic fever clinics at two regional hospitals in the north (Lira district) and west (Mbarara district) of Uganda and instituted a comprehensive acute rheumatic fever health messaging campaign. Communities and health-care workers were encouraged to refer children aged 3-17 years, with suspected acute rheumatic fever, for a definitive diagnosis using the Jones Criteria. Children were referred if they presented with any of the following: (1) history of fever within the past 48 h in combination with any joint complaint, (2) suspicion of acute rheumatic carditis, or (3) suspicion of chorea. We excluded children with a confirmed alternative diagnosis. We estimated incidence rates among children aged 5-14 years and characterised clinical features of definite and possible acute rheumatic fever cases. Data were collected between Jan 17, 2018, and Dec 30, 2018, in Lira district and between June 5, 2019, and Feb 28, 2020, in Mbarara district. Of 1075 children referred for evaluation, 410 (38%) met the inclusion criteria; of these, 90 (22%) had definite acute rheumatic fever, 82 (20·0%) had possible acute rheumatic fever, and 24 (6%) had rheumatic heart disease without evidence of acute rheumatic fever. Additionally, 108 (26%) children had confirmed alternative diagnoses and 106 (26%) had an unknown alternative diagnosis. We estimated the incidence of definite acute rheumatic fever among children aged 5-14 years as 25 cases (95% CI 13·7-30·3) per 100 000 person-years in Lira district (north) and 13 cases (7·1-21·0) per 100 000 person-years in Mbarara district (west). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first population-based study to estimate the incidence of acute rheumatic fever in sub-Saharan Africa. Given the known rheumatic heart disease burden, it is likely that only a proportion of children with acute rheumatic fever were diagnosed. These data dispel the long-held hypothesis that the condition does not exist in sub-Saharan Africa and compel investment in improving prevention, recognition, and diagnosis of acute rheumatic fever. American Heart Association Children's Strategically Focused Research Network Grant, THRiVE-2, General Electric, and Cincinnati Children's Heart Institute Research Core.

Rheumatic Heart Disease in the United States: Forgotten But Not Gone: Results of a 10 Year Multicenter Review.

BackgroundRecent evaluation of rheumatic heart disease (RHD) mortality demonstrates disproportionate disease burden within the United States. However, there are few contemporary data on US children living with acute rheumatic fever (ARF) and RHD.Methods and ResultsTwenty‐two US pediatric institutions participated in a 10‐year review (2008–2018) of electronic medical records and echocardiographic databases of children 4 to 17 years diagnosed with ARF/RHD to determine demographics, diagnosis, and management. Geocoding was used to determine a census tract‐based socioeconomic deprivation index. Descriptive statistics of patient characteristics and regression analysis of RHD classification, disease severity, and initial antibiotic prescription according to community deprivation were obtained. Data for 947 cases showed median age at diagnosis of 9 years; 51% and 56% identified as male and non‐White, respectively. Most (89%) had health insurance and were first diagnosed in the United States (82%). Only 13% reported travel to an endemic region before diagnosis. Although 96% of patients were prescribed secondary prophylaxis, only 58% were prescribed intramuscular benzathine penicillin G. Higher deprivation was associated with increasing disease severity (odds ratio, 1.25; 95% CI, 1.08–1.46).ConclusionsThe majority of recent US cases of ARF and RHD are endemic rather than the result of foreign exposure. Children who live in more deprived communities are at risk for more severe disease. This study demonstrates a need to improve guideline‐based treatment for ARF/RHD with respect to secondary prophylaxis and to increase research efforts to better understand ARF and RHD in the United States.

Echocardiography for latent rheumatic heart disease in first degree relatives of children with acute rheumatic fever: Implications for active case finding in family members.

BackgroundIndividuals with Acute Rheumatic Fever (ARF) often report a family history of ARF or Rheumatic Heart Disease (RHD) however the degree of familial susceptibility to RHD is poorly defined. This study aimed to determine RHD prevalence among first degree relatives of ARF patients using echocardiography.MethodsChildren with ARF were recruited from Auckland, New Zealand. Parents and siblings ≥ 4years were offered echocardiography. Echocardiograms were reported according to World Heart Federation 2012 criteria. RHD prevalence in first degree relatives was compared to previously established population rates in the region.FindingsIn total, 70 index cases with ARF were recruited. Echocardiography was performed in 94 parents and 132 siblings. There were 3 siblings with definite RHD and 9 with borderline RHD. There were 4 parents with definite RHD. Overall prevalence of RHD (definite and borderline) in siblings was 90/1,000 (95% CI 45–143/1,000) compared to 36/1,000 (95% CI 30–42/1,000) in New Zealand children from high ARF incidence populations (p 0.001). Prevalence of definite RHD in parents was 42/1,000 (95% CI 7–87/1,000) compared to 22/1,000 (95% CI 9–36/1,000) in adults from a high ARF incidence New Zealand population (p 0.249).InterpretationRHD prevalence in siblings and parents of ARF cases is significantly greater than in comparable background populations. The contribution of hereditary versus environmental risk factors remains uncertain. We recommend targeted echocardiographic case-finding among siblings and parents of ARF/RHD cases in order to detect previously unrecognized latent RHD.

Acute rheumatic fever in the paediatric population: a descriptive study in the Malaysian state of Sabah.

Rheumatic heart disease is among the leading causes of acquired valvular heart disease in the developing world. However, there is no data available for rheumatic heart disease in the paediatric population of Sabah. This study collected data for acute rheumatic fever admissions among the paediatric population in Sabah over a period of 3 years. This is a retrospective cohort study. All records for admissions to paediatric wards in Sabah for acute rheumatic fever from January 2016 to December 2018 were collected. The patient records were then traced and required information were collected. A total of 52 cases of acute rheumatic fever were admitted. It was observed that the incidence of acute rheumatic fever was 74.4 per 100,000 paediatric admissions. Patients from the West Coast Division made up most of the admissions (n = 24, 46.2%). Male patients (n = 35, 67.3%) of the indigenous Kadazan-Dusun ethnicity (n = 21, 40.4%) were most commonly encountered. The mean age at time of presentation was 9.58 years. Most cases admitted (n = 38, 73.1%) were categorised as Priority 1 (severe rheumatic heart disease). Most patients who were admitted had symptoms of heart failure and were diagnosed with severe rheumatic heart disease. Although this disease is preventable, the incidence in Sabah remains high. This study was limited as we only looked at patients who were admitted and we foresee the real incidence to be higher. Hence, there is an urgent need for a rheumatic heart disease registry in Malaysia to gather more data for prevention and early intervention.

Morbidity and mortality of rheumatic heart disease and acute rheumatic fever in the inpatient setting in Timor-Leste.

To describe the clinical features, treatment and outcomes of acute rheumatic fever (ARF) and rheumatic heart disease (RHD) in children admitted to the national referral hospital in Dili, Timor-Leste. This prospective study documented cases of ARF and RHD in children aged 14 years and under who were admitted between June 2017 and May 2019. ARF was diagnosed using an adapted version of the 2015 Jones criteria and presumed (rather than proven) exposure to group A Streptococcus. Clinical and echocardiographic findings, comorbidities and discharge outcomes are reported. A total of 63 patients were admitted with ARF or RHD; 54 were diagnosed with RHD for the first time. Median age was 11 years (range 3-14); 48% were female. Of those with echocardiograms, 56/58 had RHD, 55/56 (98%) had mitral regurgitation (37/55 (67%) severe), 11/56 (20%) had mitral stenosis and 43/56 (77%) had aortic regurgitation. Left ventricular dysfunction (55%), pulmonary hypertension (64%) and cardiac failure (78%) were common. Four (6%) patients died in hospital, and 30/59 (51%) of surviving patients were lost to follow up. Community echocardiography screening has reported a high prevalence of undetected mild to moderate cases of RHD in Timor-Leste, whereas this hospital study documents mostly severe disease among hospitalised patients with a high case fatality rate and loss to follow up. RHD is a significant health problem in Timor-Leste and improved recognition and diagnosis, as well as effective delivery of treatment and follow-up are imperative.

Acute rheumatic fever - A pathological analysis of clinically missed cases.

Acute rheumatic fever (ARF) and its post-inflammatory sequel chronic rheumatic heart disease (RHD) are endemic in the Indian setting. Despite the updated Jones criteria, many cases of ARF remain undiagnosed or are missed. This study aims to analyze pathological profiles of such cases and their importance in context of clinical presentation and Jones criteria. A 22-year retrospective observational study of ARF was conducted in the Department of Pathology in a tertiary care institute. The cases were categorized as 1. Those fulfilling and 2. those partially or not fulfilling the Jones Criteria. Based on the autopsy findings, the lesions were classified as categorized mitral stenosis and/or regurgitation (MS ± MR) and pure mitral regurgitation (MR). Nil. In 22 years, among 697 cases of autopsied cases of RHD, there were 59 cases (8.5%) of ARF. Among them, seven cases fulfilled the Jones criteria; five of them were clinically diagnosed. The remaining 52 cases (88.1%, 34 with MS ± MR and 18 with MR) did not fulfill or partially fulfilled the Jones criteria and were not diagnosed. A total of 18 patients (30.5%) had the first attack of ARF, whereas recurrences were noted in the remaining patients (69.5%). The study indicates that the typical manifestations of ARF under Jones criteria may not be present, especially in cases with recurrence. Hence, a presumptive or possible diagnosis of ARF can be made with presence of minor criteria or strong clinical suspicion in such cases.

Editorial Comment for the Paper “Clinical Course and Prognosis of Six Cases of Acute Rheumatic Fever with Carditis”

Editorial Comment for the Paper “Clinical Course and Prognosis of Six Cases of Acute Rheumatic Fever with Carditis”

Abstract 14693: Rheumatic Heart Disease and Deprivation in the United States: A Retrospective Review

Introduction: Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) tracks with other cardiovascular health inequities in the US; however, RHD mortality captures a fraction of those affected and lags behind diagnosis by decades. There is little contemporary data on children living with acute rheumatic fever (ARF) and RHD within the US. This study describes recent pediatric ARF/RHD in the US and examines the association with community deprivation. Methods: Sixty US institutions were invited to participate in a 10-year review (2008-2018). Geocoding was used to determine a census tract-based socioeconomic deprivation index (DI) ranging from 0-1 (1 being most deprived). Independent sample t-test was used to compare DI means. Odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals were obtained from multivariable logistic regression. The DI was scaled to provide ORs for a one standard deviation increase. Results: Data for 947 cases from 22 institutions showed median age at diagnosis of 9 years, with half identifying as male (51%) and non-white (52%), and three-quarters (74%) identifying as non-Hispanic. Most identified English as their primary language, had health insurance, and were first diagnosed in the US (84%, 89%, and 82%, respectively). Of the 157 (17%) with travel exposure, Pacific Islands (38%) and Africa (21%) were most commonly identified. Nearly three-quarters (73%) were diagnosed with ARF and most (98%) had an echocardiogram at diagnosis. While 96% of patients were prescribed secondary prophylaxis, only half (58%) were prescribed intramuscular Benzathine penicillin (BPG), the gold standard. The mean DI was 0.39±0.15. Higher deprivation was associated with RHD as opposed to ARF at diagnosis (DI 0.42 vs. 0.38, p&lt;0.001). Additionally, higher deprivation was associated with increased risk of severe RHD (OR 1.34; 95% CI 1.11-1.62) and increased use of BPG vs enteral penicillin for secondary prevention (OR 0.67; 95% CI 0.56-0.8). Conclusions: Recent pediatric cases of ARF and RHD in the US are endemic, rather than from foreign exposure and children who live in more deprived communities are at risk for more severe disease. Additional research is needed into why intramuscular penicillin, which has superior efficacy compared to oral penicillin, is prescribed in only half of cases.

Sudden Cardiac Arrest in an American Indian Infant

Sudden Cardiac Arrest in an American Indian Infant

Ending rheumatic heart disease in Australia: the evidence for a new approach.

■The RHD Endgame Strategy: the blueprint to eliminate rheumatic heart disease in Australia by 2031 (the Endgame Strategy) is the blueprint to eliminate rheumatic heart disease (RHD) in Australia by 2031. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people live with one of the highest per capita burdens of RHD in the world. ■The Endgame Strategy synthesises information compiled across the 5-year lifespan of the End Rheumatic Heart Disease Centre of Research Excellence (END RHD CRE). Data and results from priority research projects across several disciplines of research complemented literature reviews, systematic reviews and narrative reviews. Further, the experiences of those working in acute rheumatic fever (ARF) and RHD control and those living with RHD to provide the technical evidence for eliminating RHD in Australia were included. ■The lived experience of RHD is a critical factor in health outcomes. All future strategies to address ARF and RHD must prioritise Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people's knowledge, perspectives and experiences and develop co-designed approaches to RHD elimination. The environmental, economic, social and political context of RHD in Australia is inexorably linked to ending the disease. ■Statistical modelling undertaken in 2019 looked at the economic and health impacts of implementing an indicative strategy to eliminate RHD by 2031. Beginning in 2019, the strategy would include: reducing household crowding, improving hygiene infrastructure, strengthening primary health care and improving secondary prophylaxis. It was estimated that the strategy would prevent 663 deaths and save the health care system $188 million. ■The Endgame Strategy provides the evidence for a new approach to RHD elimination. It proposes an implementation framework of five priority action areas. These focus on strategies to prevent new cases of ARF and RHD early in the causal pathway from Streptococcus pyogenes exposure to ARF, and strategies that address the critical systems and structural changes needed to support a comprehensive RHD elimination strategy.

Contemporary Incidence and Prevalence of Rheumatic Fever and Rheumatic Heart Disease in Australia Using Linked Data: The Case for Policy Change.

BackgroundIn 2018, the World Health Organization prioritized control of acute rheumatic fever (ARF) and rheumatic heart disease (RHD), including disease surveillance. We developed strategies for estimating contemporary ARF/RHD incidence and prevalence in Australia (2015–2017) by age group, sex, and region for Indigenous and non‐Indigenous Australians based on innovative, direct methods.Methods and ResultsThis population‐based study used linked administrative data from 5 Australian jurisdictions. A cohort of ARF (age <45 years) and RHD cases (<55 years) were sourced from jurisdictional ARF/RHD registers, surgical registries, and inpatient data. We developed robust methods for epidemiologic case ascertainment for ARF/RHD. We calculated age‐specific and age‐standardized incidence and prevalence. Age‐standardized rate and prevalence ratios compared disease burden between demographic subgroups. Of 1425 ARF episodes, 72.1% were first‐ever, 88.8% in Indigenous people and 78.6% were aged <25 years. The age‐standardized ARF first‐ever rates were 71.9 and 0.60/100 000 for Indigenous and non‐Indigenous populations, respectively (age‐standardized rate ratio=124.1; 95% CI, 105.2–146.3). The 2017 Global Burden of Disease RHD prevalent counts for Australia (<55 years) underestimate the burden (1518 versus 6156 Australia‐wide extrapolated from our study). The Indigenous age‐standardized RHD prevalence (666.3/100 000) was 61.4 times higher (95% CI, 59.3–63.5) than non‐Indigenous (10.9/100 000). Female RHD prevalence was double that in males. Regions in northern Australia had the highest rates.ConclusionsThis study provides the most accurate estimates to date of Australian ARF and RHD rates. The high Indigenous burden necessitates urgent government action. Findings suggest RHD may be underestimated in many high‐resource settings. The linked data methods outlined here have potential for global applicability.

Infecções das vias aéreas superiores por Streptococcus pyogenes: fisiopatologia e diagnóstico

Objetivo: Evidenciar a fisiopatologia das infecções por Streptococcus pyogenes no trato respiratório superior, suas respectivas complicações e como é realizado o diagnóstico microbiológico. Metodologia: O presente estudo trata-se de uma revisão integrativa da literatura científica caracterizada pela abordagem qualitativa. Foram consultadas as bases de dados eletrônicas PubMed e ScienceDirect-Elsevier, sendo incluídos os artigos escritos em português, inglês e espanhol compreendidos no recorte temporal de 2015 ao ano de 2020. Foram utilizados como descritores, os termos: Streptococcus pyogenes AND Rheumatic Fever; Streptococcus pyogenes AND Arthritis; Streptococcus pyogenes AND Myocarditis; Streptococcus pyogenes AND Pharyngitis, sendo identificados 2619 artigos: 420 na base PubMed; 2199 na ScienceDirect. Ao final do processo de seleção, 22 artigos foram escolhidos para a síntese do presente estudo. Resultados: Para que ocorra a disseminação do microrganismo é necessária à interação com as células hospedeiras, a depender de características como patogenicidade, virulência, carga infectante e região infectada, a probabilidade de invasão pode aumentar consideravelmente e evoluir para quadros crônicos de febre reumática aguda, artrite reativa pós estreptocócica e doença cardíaca reumática. O padrão ouro para o diagnóstico é a cultura da orofaringe, no entanto, existem limitações. Outras alternativas são os testes sorológicos, como a Antiestreptolisina O (ASLO) e a anti-desoxyribonuclease B (anti-DNase). Conclusão: A depender da resposta imune humoral/celular, as complicações perante uma infecção prévia por S. pyogenes são alarmantes, uma vez que à medida que o contágio evolui, as alterações tornam-se proeminentes e irreversíveis.