Women's Actual Experiences Research Articles

The Symbolic Racism Scale and the Modern Sexism Scale: Testing measurement invariance in diverse samples.

The present study examined the measurement invariance of the Symbolic Racism Scale (SRS) and the Modern Sexism Scale (MSS) across racial/ethnic and gender groups. Previous psychometric evaluations of the SRS and MSS scores have not examined the equivalence across racial/ethnic and gender groups or have been otherwise statistically inadequate. Therefore, this study sought to fill this gap. To establish measurement equivalence across racial/ethnic (Black, Latinx, and white) and gender (women and men) groups, we conducted a measurement invariance analysis of the SRS and the MSS in a large, diverse sample (N = 719). We found that the SRS and MSS were invariant across gender, and the SRS was invariant across racial/ethnic groups. However, the MSS was noninvariant across racial/ethnic groups. Partial invariance testing revealed nonequivalent factor loadings between Black and Latinx participants compared to white participants on an item of the MSS that referenced "unwarranted" attention that women receive from the government and media. Researchers should consider reevaluating the item that reads: "Over the past few years, the government and news media have been showing more concern about the treatment of women than is warranted by women's actual experiences." Future research is needed to assess how the item is interpreted by Black and Latinx people so it can be modified for use in these communities. Our findings underscore the importance of assessing the validity of the scores in commonly used scales across diverse groups. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Acceptability and Satisfaction of Contraceptive Vaginal Rings in Clinical Studies: A Systematic Review and Narrative Synthesis.

Introduction: Acceptability of and satisfaction with contraceptive methods are paramount for uptake and continuation. In the current context of multipurpose prevention of pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases/HIV development, it is critical to have a better understanding of acceptability of and satisfaction with the contraceptive vaginal ring (CVR) including sexual satisfaction. The objective of this study was to review the evidence about acceptability of CVRs and general and sexual satisfaction of users.Methods: We searched PubMed, CINAHL, and Web of Science (until December 31, 2020) and selected original studies documenting actual use of hormonal CVR and explicitly addressing any of the 3 outcomes.Results: Of a total of 1,129 records screened, 46 studies were included. Most studies (n = 43, 93%) were prospective, conducted in high-income settings (n = 35), and reported on NuvaRing® use (n = 31). Overall, 27 (59%) studies included a comparison group, 38 (82%) studies used exclusively quantitative questionnaires, with qualitative only (n = 4, 9%), or mixed methods (n = 4, 9%) studies being less common. Ease of CVR insertion/removal/reinsertion was high in all the settings and improved with time of use, with qualitative studies supporting these findings. When mentioned, ring-related events were associated with discontinuation, and results on continuation of use were mixed. Among NuvaRing® studies, general satisfaction (being satisfied or very satisfied) was between 80 and 90% and tended to mirror continuation. Sexual satisfaction was less commonly reported and results were mixed. Overall, limited information was provided on actual CVR experiences of women (and men) and cultural norms that may affect sexuality and CVR use.Conclusion: Positive aspects of acceptability of and satisfaction with CVRs were reported, but ring-related events and factors, which may affect long-term CVR use, deserve further study. More information is needed on actual experiences of women using CVRs, relationship aspects, male partner opinions, and contextual norms to better understand the acceptability of and satisfaction with CVRs.

A mixed methods study exploring methadone treatment disclosure and perceptions of reproductive health care among women ages 18–44 years, Los Angeles, CA

IntroductionOpioid use disorder (OUD) and methadone treatment are increasing among women ages 18–44 years old, a population with unique healthcare needs. Despite this increase, there is little research on the healthcare experiences of women with OUD, particularly experiences with reproductive healthcare. MethodsWe designed a sequential, mixed-methods study in three Los Angeles methadone clinics. In the first phase, we conducted in-depth interviews with women in methadone treatment (n = 22) (September–December 2016). After thematic coding and analysis, we designed and administered a survey to understand patterns in women's experiences and reproductive health knowledge, attitudes, and behavior (n = 50) (January–April 2018). We conducted descriptive statistics, then integrated the quantitative and qualitative findings to contextualize and understand perceptions and experiences with healthcare providers among women in methadone treatment. ResultsWe found that women experienced and anticipated that providers would treat them poorly when they disclosed that they were in methadone treatment for OUD. Women's actual experiences with disclosure, shared in in-depth interviews, varied by whether they had disclosed their status intentionally or inadvertently. Approximately one-third (37%) of survey respondents thought a healthcare provider would scold them if they became pregnant; however, all who had been pregnant in the past while on methadone (n = 11) reported disclosing methadone treatment during pregnancy to their provider. Under a quarter of all women (22%) said having a healthy pregnancy while on methadone was likely or very likely. These perceptions were reinforced by negative experiences with providers, or, in many cases, women in the survey reported that they had never discussed the recommendations for a healthy pregnancy while on methadone with a healthcare provider. DiscussionWomen experience and anticipate experiencing negative interactions with their healthcare providers if and when they disclose their methadone treatment. These perceptions and experiences impact subsequent treatment seeking and disclosure. The majority of women did not discuss pregnancy with healthcare providers. To improve quality of care, healthcare providers can provide a safe space for women to disclose methadone treatment through nonjudgmental communication that intentionally alleviates stigma. Additionally, healthcare providers should understand medical guidelines and laws/policies around methadone during pregnancy and communicate this understanding to all patients who may wish to become pregnant or who are at risk for unintended pregnancy.

What the City Has to Offer: Urbanization and Women's Empowerment in Turkey

AbstractThis article examines the relationship between urbanization and women's empowerment through the Turkish case. The article first tests statistically the overall impact of urbanization on women's empowerment by tapping into educational, economic, and political indicators at the province level. The results yield a positive relationship between urbanization and women's empowerment. We argue that these empowerment indicators demonstrate the necessary conditions of women's empowerment, yet whether these are sufficient for women to feel empowered needs to be further tested. To do so, the article utilizes an extensive original survey of 334 well-educated urban women in 43 out of 81 provinces of Turkey to examine the extent to which the results found in the quantitative section are paralleled by the actual experiences of women. The survey analysis reveals prospects and obstacles that well-educated women face in old and new urban centers. This nonrandom, purposive sample of seemingly empowered urban women shows that the barriers faced by these women would easily multiply when lower strata of society are reached. The Turkish case demonstrates that societal transformations such as urbanization have an imprint on the fates of women, yet further women's empowerment needs collective action at the political, legal, and societal levels.

Patient Information Needs and Breast Reconstruction After Mastectomy: A Qualitative Meta-Synthesis.

BackgroundAlthough many women benefit from breast reconstruction after mastectomy, several studies report women's dissatisfaction with the level of information they were provided with before reconstruction.ObjectiveThe present meta-synthesis examines the qualitative literature that explores women's experiences of breast reconstruction after mastectomy and highlights women's healthcare information needs.MethodsAfter a comprehensive search of 6 electronic databases (CINAHL, Cochrane Library, EMBASE, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, and Scopus), we followed the methodology for synthesizing qualitative research. The search produced 423 studies, which were assessed against 5 inclusion criteria. A meta-synthesis methodology was used to analyze the data through taxonomic classification and constant targeted comparison.ResultsSome 17 studies met the inclusion criteria, and findings from 16 studies were synthesized. The role of the healthcare practitioner is noted as a major influence on women's expectations, and in some instances, women did not feel adequately informed about the outcomes of surgery and the recovery process. In general, women's desire for normality and effective emotional coping shapes their information needs.ConclusionThe information needs of women are better understood after considering women's actual experiences with breast reconstruction. It is important to inform women of the immediate outcomes of reconstruction surgery and the recovery process.Implications for PracticeIn an attempt to better address women's information needs, healthcare practitioners should discover women's initial expectations of reconstruction as a starting point in the consultation. In addition, the research revealed the importance of the nurse navigator in terms of assisting women through the recovery process.

Race, Class, and Abortion: How Liberation Theology Enhances the Demand for Reproductive Justice

The debate over abortion tends to be framed as life versus choice. Yet, neither pole matches the actual experiences of women, especially women of colour and poor women. Using the hermeneutical circle from the perspective of Christian liberation theology, this article argues that beginning with the voices of those marginalized in the debate leads us to a broader conversation of reproductive justice, which requires an analysis of reproduction as a whole. The article focuses on what constrains the ability of women and men to choose whether to have children, across the spectrum from contraception to abortion to fetus selection.

Abstract A07: Included in the debate: Women's perspectives on mammography after experiencing a false positive screen

Abstract Background: The utility of mammography screening as an efficacious tool for early detection is being contested due to the risk of potential harms including false positives and over-diagnosis. Yet there is little research regarding women's experiences, values or preferences for participating in mammography programs. Our aim was to explore women's actual experiences of a false positive mammography screen and their perceptions of the value, risks and benefits given their recent experience among a diverse group of mammography screeners. Methods: Semi-structured interviews were completed with 40 women who experienced a recent false positive mammogram at an academic hospital that provides care to low-income, medically underserved women. Interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim. A directed content analysis was used to identify and explore primary themes. Knowledge of breast cancer risk was also assessed. Findings: Unlike most cancer screening samples, women in our study were quite diverse; 45% were African American, 27% were uninsured or insured through Medicare/Medicaid and 22.5% reported incomes less than $30,000. Receiving a false positive mammography screen generated worry among 60% (n=24) of women. Yet 70% maintained that mammography screening was necessary despite the worry incurred. Women also described the experience as stimulating greater interest in additional cancer prevention activities (32.5%; n=13) and one third discussed needing more information about the risks and benefits of mammography screening. Less than one quarter of women (22.5%; n=9) correctly identified a women's lifetime risk of developing breast cancer, 20% (n=8) overestimated and 57.5% (n=23) underestimated this risk. Conclusion: Our findings represent the experiences of a diverse sample of women whose voices are typically underrepresented and often excluded from the ongoing and contentious medical dialogue regarding mammography. Women reported needing more information about the risks and benefits of mammography screening but also considered false positives an acceptable risk. It is clear that women require and are demanding, more information regarding breast cancer prevention in general and mammography screening in particular. Further, our results suggest that breast cancer screening programs may provide a unique opportunity to deliver additional breast cancer prevention interventions. Citation Format: Maria D. Thomson. Included in the debate: Women's perspectives on mammography after experiencing a false positive screen. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the Seventh AACR Conference on The Science of Health Disparities in Racial/Ethnic Minorities and the Medically Underserved; Nov 9-12, 2014; San Antonio, TX. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2015;24(10 Suppl):Abstract nr A07.

Perspectives on Mammography after Receipt of Secondary Screening Owing to a False Positive

BackgroundThe utility of mammography screening as an efficacious tool for early detection is being contested owing to the risk of potential harms, including psychological distress and exposure to unnecessary procedures associated with false-positive (FPs) results and overdiagnosis. However, there is little research regarding women's experiences, values, or preferences for participating in mammography programs. Our aim was to explore women's actual experiences of a FP mammography screen and their perceptions of the value, risks and benefits given their recent experience. MethodsWe conducted semistructured interviews with 40 women who experienced a recent FP mammogram. Interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim. A directed content analysis was used to identify and explore primary themes. Knowledge of breast cancer risk was also assessed. FindingsReceiving a FP mammography screen generated significant worry among 60% (n = 24) of women. Yet 70% maintained that mammography screening was necessary despite the worry incurred. Women also described the experience as stimulating greater interest in additional cancer prevention activities (32.5%; n = 13) and one-third discussed needing more information about the risks and benefits of mammography screening. Less than one-quarter of women (22.5%; n = 9) correctly identified a women's lifetime risk of developing breast cancer; 20% (n = 8) overestimated, and 57.5% (n = 23) underestimated this risk. ConclusionWomen reported needing more information about the risks and benefits of mammography screening, but also considered FP results an acceptable risk. Further, our results suggest that breast cancer screening programs may provide a unique opportunity to deliver additional breast cancer prevention interventions.

Women's experiences with tailored use of a combined oral contraceptive: a qualitative study

What are women's experiences with tailored use of combined oral contraceptive pills (COCPs)? Some women reported very positive experiences with tailored use of COCPs, others did not like the unpredictability about when they would bleed and some women reported increased anxiety about possible pregnancy. While many studies have investigated views toward extended use of COCPs, little research has examined women's actual experiences with these regimens. This was a semi-structured qualitative interview study that was part of a larger randomized trial of a standard (21 daily pills followed by a 7-day pill-free interval) versus a tailored regimen (daily pills until 3-consecutive-day bleeding triggers a 3-day pill-free interval) of Microgynon 30® mcg (Ethinyl estradiol 30 mcg, Levonorgestrel 150 mcg). Interviews were conducted with 26 women (17 in the tailored group and 9 who switched their assigned treatment group) . Data were analyzed using thematic analysis. Women discussed positive changes associated with tailored use of COCPs, as well as some negative consequences. The major themes identified in the interview data were: ease of tailored regimen; changes in cycle-related symptoms; adjustment to reduced/absent bleeding and unpredictability about bleeding. The sample comprised mainly young, nulliparous women. The majority of women were using COCPs at the start of the study. Clinicians discussing extended-use regimes with patients should mention that women may need time to adjust to an extended-use regime. Future research should attempt to identify predictors of response to extended use of COCPs.

Born Southern: Childbirth, Motherhood, and Social Networks in the Old South (review)

Born Southern: Childbirth, Motherhood, and Social Networks in the Old South. By V. Lynn Kennedy. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010. Pp. 277. Cloth, $65.00.)Reviewed by Rebecca SharplessFor many women across time and space, childbirth and child-rearing have been the centerpieces of their adult lives, and this was the case in the antebellum South. Lacking effective contraception, both African American and white women could expect to be pregnant or nursing much of the time, often bearing ten or more children. Lynn Kennedy successfully uses birth and as a lens to investigate the complexities, difficulties, and social meanings of race and gender in the midnineteenth-century South. She looks not only at the actual experiences of women but also how southern society used those experiences to shape the region's identity.Kennedy argues that had great meaning not only for individual women but for southern society as a whole: Birth and shaped the identities of all individuals within the antebellum South and . . . these experiences created family and community bonds that developed into the foundations of a broader southern (7). Slavery, of course, put a different spin on the institution of in the South, and Kennedy carefully outlines the contrasts that slavery created between women. She also investigates the ways in which gender bound women into common experiences.Kennedy begins her discussion with the idealization of birth and common in the early nineteenth century. While southern white women shared the ideals of womanhood with other European and American cultures, southerners tied a woman's fulfillment of these standards to her status and identity within the southern community, giving a regional cast to the expectations. Southern society wanted mothers to be virtuous, monogamous, and pious, even expecting slave women to adhere to the principles of virtuous motherhood (13). Southerners boasted about the fecundity of the region's women, although the birthrate actually declined.The reality of childbirth and parenting was something altogether different from the ideal, Kennedy reveals, and it gave women an occasion for cross-racial sympathy. Some southern women feared and dreaded motherhood, and both African American and white women tried actively to limit their fertility. Their efforts largely failed, of course, and many women bore more than five children. Privileged white women often received careful attention during pregnancy. Conditions for slaves varied with the owners, as some took extra care of pregnant slaves while others refused to lessen the workload and even devised special methods of corporal punishment. The actual occasion of childbirth provided respite from patriarchy, as women alone controlled the birthing room for both slaves and their owners. African American midwives provided a crossracial experience for both races and often held esteemed positions within their communities. After the births, however, white women received care that the African Americans could only dream of, as they returned to their work routines in short order.Once children were born, most white women nursed and cared for their children themselves, although wet nurses and mammies did exist. The nurture of white children by African American women was somewhat controversial, as it implied that black women might be better than white women in caring for babies. On large plantations, slave children often had communal care; in smaller settings, their mothers had to figure out how to juggle childcare with their workload. …

Commitment or Even Compliance? An Australian University's Approach to Equal Employment Opportunity

This paper presents empirical evidence to illustrate how one Australian university complies with the nation's federal Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) regulatory framework. The aim of this paper is to provide insight into the extent to which organizational practices deviate from articulated policy and how this gap impacts on the perceived career trajectories of female academics. While the disadvantaged status of female academics has been recognized worldwide, a deeper examination of how employees experience the policies and practices designed to support their advancement is required, especially in light of the increasing corporate-like activities of Australian universities which have deprioritized EEO. A case study of an Australian university is used to explore these phenomena. Documentary evidence of its EEO policies was compared with interviewee narratives of employees, including both female academics and members of general staff involved in policy development. This allowed female employees to be heard, in particular where they sensed contradictions between espoused company policy and their real experiences. Hearing what they have to say is an important contribution, given that Australia's EEO regulatory framework allows organizations to waive reporting on their gender equity “chievements.”This case study highlights employee concerns about the efficacy of the University's policies and practices designed to support women's career trajectories and demonstrates that, particularly in light of the increasing corporatization of the University, some women questioned whether drawing support from such policies would harm their careers. The most signifi cant concern focused on the criteria for promotion, which interviewees perceived to be based on a masculine model of merit, in contrast to the ostensible gender-neutrality of the promotions policies. A related concern was how carer responsibilities impacted on opportunities for advancement, particularly the ability to engage in research work that was prized more highly than teaching activities by promotions committees. These examples illustrate that, while the University may be upholding the law at face-value, the actual experiences of women in the organization suggest that EEO compliance is merely skin-deep.

The “Trafficking” of Persians: Labor, Migration, and Traffic in Dubayy

Around the world today, we are experiencing what scholars call a “feminization of migration,” which coincides with a global panic about human trafficking and distorts the messy realities of forced labor, migration, and sex work. In the Middle East, Dubayy has become the center for the migration of many Iranian women moving into the informal economy of sex work. In this essay, I argue that the disjuncture between paradigms of Iranian women's sexualities and actual experiences of and reasons for migration to Dubayy results in complicated challenges to migrant Iranian women's agency as well as to their ideas about agency. The discourse on the innocent, trafficked woman and that on the guilty, predatory woman do not reflect women's actual experiences in Dubayy and serve only to perpetuate already gendered and raced discourses on the movement of women's bodies that is prevalent in international discourses on sex work and trafficking. Many people use the language of trafficking, problematic in its implications that women (especially from the developing world) could only be “duped” into sex work in another country, and this language serves to silence the already silenced migrant sex workers. Qualitative, ethnographic fieldwork with sex workers, migrant women, and those who provide services to them assessed the experiences of migrant women and sex workers, labeled as “trafficked” by the international community. The essay seeks to describe the experiences of these migrant women in the Middle East and how their narratives have been constructed and often misinterpreted.

Women fighters and the ‘beautiful soul’ narrative

AbstractThis article explores women's presence in military forces around the world, looking both at women's service as soldiers and at the gendered dimensions of their soldiering particularly, and soldiering generally. It uses the ‘beautiful soul’ narrative to describe women's relationship with war throughout its history, and explores how this image of women's innocence of and abstention from war has often contrasted with women's actual experiences as soldiers and fighters.

SEXUAL HARASSMENT IN THE WORKPLACE AND CONCILIATED OUTCOMES: WHO REALLY BENEFITS?

This paper examines the role of conciliation in resolving complaints of sexual harassment in the workplace. It analyses the experience of a small group of women who lodged complaints of sexual harassment and were assisted through a conciliation process by the Queensland Working Women's Service in 2007–08. It provides an overview of the literature surrounding female engagement with alternative dispute resolution (ADR) and traces the origins of the ADR movement. Concerns are raised about the appropriateness of handling sexual harassment through conciliation and about who really benefits from conciliation. This paper considers the validity of the belief that women are comfortable with and less vulnerable in conciliatory dispute resolution processes, as ADR is suggested to be more compatible with ‘female’ ways of communicating, and considers whether the original aims of ADR and the actual experiences of women are reconcilable.

Negotiating credibility: first-time mothers’ experiences of contact with the labour ward before hospitalisation

Objective to explore Norwegian nulliparous women's experiences of communication and contact with midwives at the labour ward in the early phase of labour. Design a qualitative study based on in-depth interviews. Participants 17 women expecting their first baby. Findings four themes that emerged in the collected material seem to be central to how the labouring women decided to make contact with the labour ward and how they experienced this contact with the staff: (a) negotiating on two fronts, (b) avoiding being sent home, (c) searching for regularity, and (d) experiencing vulnerability. Conclusions the study shows how women in labour for the first time negotiate their credibility with midwives through the requisite pattern of regularity, and also shows their vulnerability in attempting to avoid being sent home from hospital because it is ‘too soon’ to be admitted. It also argues that the midwifery profession is ambivalent about the paradigm to which it conforms in its contact with women in early labour. Implications for practice the findings of this study show that the way in which questions are asked in this phase is very important. Midwives should be aware that if they only ask the ‘standard question’ related to the pattern of contraction regularity, they might lose vital information and also deprive the woman of the chance to verbalise her experiences and her needs as she perceives them. If the focus is shifted from the rigid instructions that women are given to an emphasis on the women's actual experiences, the need for negotiation will probably diminish. The task of assessing and evaluating women in early labour need not necessarily be performed inside the ordinary labour ward, but may be done in a more home-like environment outside the hospital or in the woman's home.

Endangered Womanhood: Women's Experiences With HIV/AIDS in China

Women in China are increasingly affected by HIV/AIDS. Current AIDS studies have examined the HIV risks faced by this gender group, paying inadequate attention to women's actual experiences with the disease. This oversight has inhibited our ability to understand the impact of gender on women's capacity to respond to HIV/AIDS in their postinfection lives. Based on a qualitative study on illness experiences of HIV-infected people, this article examines the interactions between HIV/AIDS and gender roles in the Chinese context. It was found that traditional gender norms have played a key role for HIV-infected women in their efforts to tackle this disease and to make sense of their daily lives. HIV infection has created a conflict between women's intention to fulfill their conception of "womanhood" and a decreased ability to do so, which, in turn, has adversely affected their self-perceptions and well-being. To avoid worsening the inequality women experience, therefore, we must also work on the socioeconomic conditions, for example, through delivering comprehensive care to affected families and developing a gender-sensitive welfare policy, so that the gender imparity that permeates this epidemic can be challenged and transformed.

Women's Actual Experiences of Dan Jeon Breathing after a Cancer Operation

Purpose: This study aimed to explore women's actual experiences of Dan Jeon Breathing after a cancer operation with a view to gaining a deeper understanding of their individual experiences and the meaning that it holds for them. Methods: A phenomenological approach was used for this study. Data were collected using in-depth interviews. Study participants were 8 women aged years who have were practicing Dan Jeon Breathing over the 3 months after cancer operation. The method proposed by Colaizzi (1978) was used to guide the process of data analysis. Results: Themes which emerged from the data were: 'feeling of self-confidence', 'positive acceptance', 'expectation', and 'enervation'. Conclusions: This study provides us with an understanding on the practice and the process of Dan Jeon Breathing for cancer women to overcome cancer Therefore, women who have had an operation for cancer can pursue Dan Jeon Breathing as a nursing intervention.

女性主義倫理與香港的墮胎問題

女性主義倫理與香港的墮胎問題

Poster 30: Women??s Changing Reports of Urinary Continence: How Accurate Are One-Time Telephone Questionnaires for Categorizing Continence Status?

OBJECTIVE: We have previously reported a 24% change in continence status reports among women completing a phone interview and subsequent clinic examination during an epidemiologic study of racial differences in the prevalence of urinary incontinence in women aged 35–64 years in southeastern Michigan. This abstract explores specific reasons why women switched their continence reports. METHODS: Using leakage of 12 or more times per year as the criteria for incontinence, one fourth (N=98) of the 398 women completing a phone interview and clinic examination switched their report of continence status. These women were termed “switchers.” Of the 98 switchers, 74 (76%) were reached by follow-up phone call and asked about their “switching” of continence status during the primary study. Interviews began with an open-ended, nonleading question asking why they switched their report followed by 6 leading questions. All responses were recorded and transcribed verbatim. Responses to the nonleading question were termed “initial responses.” Content analysis was conducted using line-by-line coding. Each interviewer and a noninterviewer independently coded each interview and interrater reliability was established at 100%. RESULTS: The “initial” reasons women switched their continence report were (see Table 1): things changed that affected leakage (eg, more coughing/sneezing as a result of cold or allergies, change in activity, leakage was actually different, and so on), they initially guessed on the phone interview (eg, pressure to answer quickly on the phone, leakage too inconsistent to pinpoint, guessing for no particular reason), or they could not recall why a difference was reported. Adding all nonleading (initial responses) and leading responses together, 56.8% reported things changed that affected urine leakage, 54.1% reported increased awareness with the phone interview, 50% increased awareness with the voiding diary, 23% reported phone versus face-to-face made a difference, and 13.5% reported that interviewer versus doctor made a difference.TABLE 1CONCLUSION: One-time phone assessments of incontinence may not accurately capture many women's actual experiences with incontinence; follow-up assessments may be necessary to account for initial guessing, heightened awareness, and actual changes affecting leakage.

Öffentlichkeit und Privatheit im japanischen Modernisierungsprozess

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image sizeAbstractThe public and the private are constitutive categories of modern democratic societies. However, they should not be regarded as specific structural elements of a Western-universal modernism, but, instead, as fundamental structural elements of differing modernisations. In the Japanese modernisation process Western and Japanese concepts of the public and the private mingle and overlap with each other. In this article, therefore, the expositions of the Western concepts of the public and the private form the framework for the analysis and interpretation of the Japanese conceptualizations, which, in turn, is done not only in the Japanese context but also simultaneously in the context of the Western concepts. The significance of the mingling and overlapping of Japanese and Western concepts in the Japanese modernisation process is then demonstrated by examining the ambivalent and contradictory situation in which Japanese women have experienced the relationship between the public and the private. It was as a result of this experience that women developed reform policies in the 1980s and 1990s which can be analyzed and interpreted as a nucleus for the development of a civil society in Japan. It is the intention of this article to avoid one-sided points of view (Japan orientation vs. West orientation) of the relationship between the public and the private in the Japanese modernisation process by means of the interrelating of perspectives, analyses, and interpretations (transcultural approach) and their relation to women's actual experiences and practical reform projects (gender approach). Thus, a shared problem horizon is opened in which both Japanese society and Western societies can overcome their respective democratic deficits.