Actual Torque Research Articles

A Novel Paradigm for Controlling Navigation and Walking in Biped Robotics

This paper extends the three-dimensional inverted pendulum (spherical inverted pendulum or SIP) in a polar coordinate system to simulate human walking in free fall and the energy recovery when the foot collides with the ground. The purpose is to propose a general model to account for all characteristics of the biped and of the gait, while adding minimal dynamical complexity with respect to the SIP. This model allows for both walking omnidirectionally on a flat surface and going up and down staircases. The technique does not use torque control. However, for the gait, the only action is the change in angular velocity at the start of a new step with respect to those given after the collision (emulating the torque action in the brief double stance period) to recover from the losses, as well as the preparation of the position in the frontal and sagittal planes of the swing foot for the next collision for balance and maneuvering. Moreover, in climbing or descending staircases, during the step, the length of the supporting leg is modified for the height of the step of the staircase. Simulation examples are offered for a rectilinear walk, ascending and descending rectilinear or spiral staircases, showing stability of the walk, and the expenditure of energy.

Identification Algorithm for Stability Improvement of Welding Robot End-Effector

Aiming to solve the problem that the significant error between the actual joint torque and the calculated joint torque of a welding robot leads to the vibration of the end-effector, which in turn affects the stability of the end-effector, this paper proposes a identification algorithm based on the Weighted Least Squares Genetic Algorithm (WLS-GA) to construct and solve the dynamical model to obtain the accurate dynamical parameters. Firstly, a linear model of welding robot dynamics is derived. The fifth-order optimal Fourier series excitation trajectory is designed to collect experimental data such as joint torque. Then, a rough solution of the parameters to be recognized is obtained by solving the dynamics model through the Weighted Least Squares (WLS) method, the search space is determined based on the rough solution, and the optimal solution is obtained by using the Genetic Algorithm (GA) to perform a quadratic search in the search space. Finally, the identification data obtained from the algorithm is analyzed and compared with the experimental data. The results show that the error between the identification data obtained using the WLS-GA identification algorithm and the experimental data is relatively small. The results show that the identification data obtained using the WLS-GA identification algorithm have less error than the experimental data, taking the Root Mean Square (RMS) value of the joint torque error obtained using the weighted least squares algorithm as a criterion. The accuracy of the WLS-GA identification algorithm can be improved by up to 66.85% compared with that of the weighted least squares algorithm and by up to 78.0% compared with that of the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) algorithm. In summary, the WLS-GA identification algorithm can accurately identify the dynamic parameters of the welding robot and more accurately construct a dynamic model to solve the effect of joint torque error on the control characteristics of the welding robot. It can improve the stability of the end-effector of the welding robot to ensure the quality of the automobile body and beam welding and welding speed.

In-Flight Calibration of Lorentz Actuators for Non-Contact Close-Proximity Formation Satellites with Cooperative Control

The non-contact close-proximity formation satellite (NCCPFS) is one of the technical solutions to improve the attitude performance, consisting of a payload module (PM) and a support module (SM). The non-contact Lorentz actuator (NCLA), as the core components of the NCCPFS, directly affect the attitude control performance of the entire satellite. In order to ensure the ultra-high attitude pointing performance and stability of the PM, an in-flight calibration method for the NCLAs based on minimum model error (MME) algorithm and Kalman filtering (KF) with cooperative control strategy is proposed in this article. In this method, the NCLAs generate a periodic nominal torque that causes the attitude of the PM to be periodically deflected. This periodic torque also reacts on the SM, and the SM counteracts this periodic torque through the flywheel to realize the cooperative tracking relative to the PM. Then, the gyroscope data are substituted into the MME algorithm to obtain the angular acceleration of the two modules, and the KF algorithm is adopted to observe the actual output torque of the NCLAs to complete the in-flight calibration of the NCLAs. Numerical simulation results show that the accuracy of the proposed calibration algorithm can reach about 8%, which proves the effectiveness of the proposed method.

Research on Improvement Methods for Driven System of Bio-Inspired Aircraft to Increase Flight Speed

The flapping-wing ornithopter is an aircraft that imitates the flight of birds in nature. It has significant potential and value in various fields such as surveying, search and rescue, military reconnaissance, and unmanned warfare, due to its biomimetic stealth and high efficiency in low Reynolds number flight. However, the cruising speed of current flapping-wing ornithopters is generally lower than that of birds of the same size, which seriously affects biomimicry, mission capability, and wind resistance. Increasing the cruising speed can make the aircraft fly more like a bird, improve the efficiency of reconnaissance missions and wind resistance per unit time, and has important research significance. However, the methods to increase the cruising speed of flapping-wing ornithopters are currently lacking. Firstly, this paper presents improvements to the propulsion system based on the team’s “Dove” aircraft to meet the speed requirements. The actual flapping frequency and rocking arm end torque of the “Dove” aircraft under different voltages are tested. To select and match the motor and gearbox in the propulsion system, a method for matching and selection among the motor, gearbox, and load is proposed. Finally, wind tunnel experiments and flight validations are conducted on the improved flight prototype. The wind tunnel experiments show that the increase in flapping frequency has a significant impact on thrust. The trimmed states at different speeds are obtained. The flight validation demonstrates the sustained high-speed flight capability of the aircraft. At a flapping frequency of approximately 15 Hz, the average flight speed of the aircraft is 13.3 m/s within a 15 min duration, which is close to the actual flight speed of pigeons. The duration of high-speed flight is tripled compared to the initial duration. The speed improvement successfully enhances the biomimicry and efficiency of reconnaissance missions per unit time for the aircraft.

Analysis of the Influence of Thread Parameter Deviation on The Sealing Performance of Drill Pipe Joint Under Axial Load

To explore the influence of the limit deviation of the thread parameters of the drill pipe joint on its sealing performance, based on the API NC38 drill pipe joint, the existence of the limit deviations of the three thread parameters of taper, side angle, and pitch is analyzed. Based on this, a total of 12 finite element models of drill pipe joints including various limit deviations and free combinations of internal and external thread limit deviations are established, and the sealing performance of different structures under the action of make-up torque and axial load is analyzed. The results show that the pitch limit deviation has the most obvious influence on the sealing performance of the drill pipe joint, and the yield failure of the contact surface is easy to occur. The existence of taper limit deviation makes the sealing performance of the drill pipe joint significantly reduced when subjected to tensile load. When the change of the limit deviation of the side angle of the internal and external thread teeth is opposite, the plastic deformation occurs locally in the drill pipe joint, which affects the sealing effect. Therefore, it is necessary to control further the tolerance range of the thread parameters of the drill pipe joint to reduce the risk of sealing failure of the drill pipe joint.

Buckling collapse of submarine thick-wall pipe under torque and hydraulic pressure based on vector form intrinsic finite element method

Torsion is a prevalent form of stress on pipe. This paper employs experimental and numerical methods to investigate the buckling behavior of thick-walled pipe under combined torsion and external pressure. Firstly, the beam-shell coupling method based on the vector form intrinsic finite element method is utilized to establish a model for torsion and external pressure in thick-walled pipe. The accuracy of the model is verified by the collapsible test of the scaled pipe. On this basis, the influence of different torsion angles on the failure mode and the failure mechanism of bending pipe under dynamic and quasi-static conditions are compared and analyzed. It is found that under different loading conditions, the buckling propagation mode of the downstream pipeline changes greatly. This phenomenon is mainly caused by the action of torque on the elbow. Finally, the effect of different torsion angles on the collapse pressure of the bend is investigated.

Optimization of Torque-Control Model for Quasi-Direct-Drive Knee Exoskeleton Robots Based on Regression Forecasting.

The choice of torque curve in lower-limb enhanced exoskeleton robots is a key problem in the control of lower-limb exoskeleton robots. As a human-machine coupled system, mapping from sensor data to joint torque is complex and non-linear, making it difficult to accurately model using mathematical tools. In this research study, the knee torque data of an exoskeleton robot climbing up stairs were obtained using an optical motion-capture system and three-dimensional force-measuring tables, and the inertial measurement unit (IMU) data of the lower limbs of the exoskeleton robot were simultaneously collected. Nonlinear approximations can be learned using machine learning methods. In this research study, a multivariate network model combining CNN and LSTM was used for nonlinear regression forecasting, and a knee joint torque-control model was obtained. Due to delays in mechanical transmission, communication, and the bottom controller, the actual torque curve will lag behind the theoretical curve. In order to compensate for these delays, different time shifts of the torque curve were carried out in the model-training stage to produce different control models. The above model was applied to a lightweight knee exoskeleton robot. The performance of the exoskeleton robot was evaluated using surface electromyography (sEMG) experiments, and the effects of different time-shifting parameters on the performance were compared. During testing, the sEMG activity of the rectus femoris (RF) decreased by 20.87%, while the sEMG activity of the vastus medialis (VM) increased by 17.45%. The experimental results verify the effectiveness of this control model in assisting knee joints in climbing up stairs.

PMSM Field-Oriented Control with Independent Speed and Flux Controllers for Continuous Operation under Open-Circuit Fault at Light Load Conditions

Presented in this article is a permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) control under open-circuit fault (OCF) operation using field-oriented control (FOC) with independent speed and flux controllers. The independent control allows the motor to operate efficiently under varying conditions. A simplified control approach is employed to control the PMSM under the OCF situation; the actual flux and torque of the PMSM are directly measured by the stator currents, eliminating the need for estimators or phase-locked-loop (PLL) systems. Matlab/Simulink is employed for the simulation, while hardware experiments are conducted using a dSPACE DS1104. The simulation and the hardware results demonstrate the control method’s effectiveness in maintaining continuous motor operation during OCF, its robustness against OCF conditions, and its ability to adapt under varying conditions, including speed, flux, and load torque change.

Comparison of double chevron-cut and biplanar distal femoral osteotomy techniques: A biomechanical study.

This study aimed to compare the stability and mechanical properties of the double chevron-cut (DCC) and biplanar (BP) distal femoral osteotomy (DFO) techniques, along with analyzing their respective contact surface areas. Biomechanical testing was performed using sawbone and 3D modeling techniques to assess axial and torsional stability, torsional stiffness, and maximum torque of both osteotomy configurations. Additionally, 3D models of the sawbone femur were created to calculate and compare the contact surface area of the DCC, BP, and conventional single-plane DFO techniques. Axial stiffness and maximum strength did not significantly differ between the two osteotomy techniques. However, in terms of torsional properties, the DCC technique exhibited superior torsional stiffness compared to the BP group (27 ± 7.7 Nm/° vs. 4.5 ± 1.5 Nm/°, p = 0.008). Although the difference in maximum torque did not reach statistical significance (63 ± 10.6 vs. 56 ± 12.1, p = 0.87), it is noteworthy that the DCC group sawbone model exhibited fracture in the shaft region instead of at the osteotomy site. Therefore, the actual maximum torque of the DCC construct may not be accurately reflected by the numerical values obtained in this study. The contact surface area analysis revealed that the BP configuration had the largest contact surface area, 111% larger than that of the single-plane configuration. but 60% of it relied on the less reliable axial cut. Conversely, the DCC osteotomy offered a 31% larger contact surface area than the single-plane configuration, with both surfaces being weight-bearing. The DCC osteotomy exhibited superior mechanical stability, showing improved rotational stiffness and maximum torque when compared to the BP osteotomy. Although the BP osteotomy resulted in a larger contact surface area than the DCC osteotomy, both were larger than the conventional single-plane configuration. In clinical practice, both the DCC and BP techniques should be evaluated based on patient-specific characteristics and surgical goals.

Simulation Study on Hydraulic Braking Control of Engine Motor of Hybrid Electric Vehicle

Abstract Taking the hybrid electric vehicle as the research object, under the premise of ensuring braking safety, aiming at maximizing the use of motor regenerative braking force and improving the coordination performance of motor hydraulic braking, a simulation study of motor hydraulic braking control based on hybrid electric vehicle engine is proposed. According to the dynamic model and ideal braking force distribution curve of the hybrid electric vehicle, combined with the common idea of electro-hydraulic compound braking force distribution, a three-layer braking control structure of the hybrid electric vehicle is constructed. The management determines the braking intention through the driver's pedal action and calculates the expected torque, and the control layer obtains the target braking force distribution relationship through the logic gate limit control method based on the expected torque. According to the actual motor torque signal fed back by the executive layer and the wheel cylinder pressure signal of the hydraulic braking system, the braking force and regenerative braking force of the hydraulic system are dynamically coordinated and controlled to ensure that the state switching of each component can be rapid, stable, and timely, and the control instruction is transmitted to the motor hydraulic braking system of the executive layer through the vehicle controller to complete the motor hydraulic braking of the hybrid electric vehicle engine. The experimental results show that this method can realize the reasonable distribution of motor hydraulic braking under different braking intensities, different initial braking speeds, and different pedal dip amplitudes, which makes the reaction speed of the hybrid electric vehicle in the braking process faster, the braking switching more stable and safe, effectively improves the energy utilization rate of the hybrid electric vehicle, and ensures the economy and safety of braking control of the hybrid electric vehicle.

An Accurate Torque Control Strategy for Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors Based on a Multi-Closed-Loop Regulation Design

Torque control accuracy is a significant index of permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs) and affects the safety of many applications greatly. Due to the strong nonlinearity of the motor as well as the disturbance of non-ideal factors such as temperature fluctuation and the parameter error in field-oriented control (FOC), it is undoubtedly difficult to accurately control the actual output torque. Meanwhile, the parameter differences between motors and sensors during mass production and the assembly process affect the consistency of output torque and even increase the factory failure rate of the motor. No torque sensor is implemented due to the cost and limited space. Accurate estimation of the motor torque becomes essential to realize the closed-loop feedback for torque and improve the accuracy at a lower cost. In this paper, a look-up table (LUT) model that can reflect the nonlinear mapping relationship between power and torque is established based on numerous offline experiments, which avoids the calculation of complex losses. A multi-closed-loop control strategy is proposed to dynamically adjust the amplitude and angle of the preset current command, respectively, to improve the torque accuracy. The effectiveness of the strategy has been validated by experimental results.

Influence of Extruder Setup and Process Parameters on the Product Quality of Solid Polymer Electrolytes Using Melt Extrusion

All solid-state batteries (ASSBs) are the next generation battery technology, in which the classical liquid electrolyte is replaced by an ion-conducting solid electrolyte. Materials that are used as solid-state electrolytes are generally divided into three material classes: polymers, oxides and sulphides. Electrolyte materials for ASSBs have been extensively studied regarding their electrochemical performance and their stability towards the electrode materials. Nevertheless, the commercialization of ASSBs is still hindered by the material availability in case of oxide and sulphides and the knowledge of scaled production routes for all kinds of separators. Polymers are readily available on the global market. It is thus possible to focus more on the processing routes of polymer based solid electrolytes. The use of thermoplastics as matrix for solid electrolytes (SE) offers the prospect of facile upscaling of the process from lab-scale to industrial series production by the implementation of a solvent-free thermal extrusion process. A twin-screw extruder offers the possibility of continuously mixing the SE components to produce homogeneous polymer based SEs. With two feeding units, the addition of the components takes place separately. This eliminates the time-consuming premixing step to obtain a homogeneous mixture.Thermoplastic poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) is one of the most investigated materials for polymer based SEs due to its capability to dissolve alkali salts like Lithium(bistrifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI). The thermal process route of PEO and its effect on the polymeric properties are currently under investigation. Previous works from our research group show that the processability of PEO not only depends on the conductive salt (LiTFSI), but also on its molecular weight and applied process parameters. [1] With increasing molecular weight, PEO becomes more sensitive towards thermal and mechanical load that leads to chain scissoring and degradation even at small load. Hence, the use of low molecular weight PEO (Mw= 100.000 g mol-1) is preferable for the dry production of PEO based SEs.The aim of this work is to optimize the extrusion process using a co-rotating twin-screw extruder for the solvent free production of solid PEO/LiTFSI-electrolytes in a molar ratio of 20:1 (EO:Li). Here, we investigate the effects of several extruder set-ups on the mixing behaviour of PEO and LiTFSI. Therefore, type of dosing and screw design are varied. The screw can be designed with conveying, kneading and mixing elements. We compare the dry extrusion of a premixed PEO/LiTFSI (20:1) batch with dry extrusion of PEO/LiTFSI (20:1) using two feeding units, one for each component. Process parameters, such as pressure at the extruder die, actual screw speed, torque and barrel temperature are continuously measured during the production. Process temperature and screw speed are optimized to avoid degradation of PEO. PEO/LiTFSI-electrolytes are produced with a process temperature of 90 °C across the whole extruder barrel and with screw speeds of 5 – 15 rpm. The products are evaluated by their homogeneity and quality of the extruded electrolytes. Optical microscopy is used for macroscopic evaluation and the Li-salt distribution is checked with SEM/EDX. Conductivity and rheology measurements are performed to determine the lithium concentration within the electrolyte and loss of molecular weight, respectively. For the determination of the ionic conductivity, we examine electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The characterization of the extruded electrolytes helps to find optimal process parameters for the production of polymer based SEs.

Time characteristics of microsatellite attitude control at intervals between reac-tion wheels desaturations

The article is devoted to the processes study of changing the microsatellite reaction wheels angular velocities during its stabilization, turn and detumbling. Satellite control is considered under conditions of constant and harmonic external torques, as well as under gravitational, aerodynamic and magnetic disturbing torques. Expressions that describe the change in the reaction wheels angular velocities during satellite stabilization under the action of constant and harmonic torques at a frequency equal to the orbital angular velocity are given. The influence of the magnetic disturbing torque caused by the constant component of the satellite's dipole moment on the accumulation of the reaction wheels angular momentum has been studied. The formula for determining the magnitude of the reaction wheels angular velocities oscillations was obtained using a model of the Earth's magnetic field in the form of the straight dipole and taking into account a circular orbit. Moreover, its use for calculating the maximum values of angular velocities gives results that are very close to the results of modeling taking into account accurate models of the Earth’s magnetic field and the satellite’s center of mass trajectory. The maximum possible operating time intervals of the control system without forced desaturation of its controls are estimated.

A New Hybrid Concentrated-Winding Concept With Improved Power Factor for Permanent Magnet Vernier Machine

This paper investigates a high power-factor permanent magnet vernier machine (PMVM) equipped with low-coupling hybrid concentrated-winding (CW). The proposed hybrid-CW, carrying both star- and delta-winding sets, exhibits a good filtering property to both sub- and super-order harmonics. Through the meticulous design of the short coil pitch, the ratio of inductance to magnet flux linkage is decreased, leading to a great improvement in power factor. The proposed low-coupling winding design contributes to further power factor improvement by reducing the inductance while retaining the magnet flux linkage. It is revealed that the mutual coupling between different coils of single phase and that between different windings of three phases are suppressed significantly in the hybrid-CW, thus leading to high power factor and potentially high fault tolerance. Finite element results show that the proposed hybrid-CW PMVM exhibits a significantly improved power factor up to 0.96 from 0.83 and 0.75, as compared with two counterpart PMVMs with open-slot and split-tooth structures, respectively. Benefiting from the magnetic gearing effect, the proposed PMVM has a promising active torque density of 40 Nm/L. Taking end-winding volume into consideration, the proposed PMVM exhibits an actual torque density of 21.98 Nm/L, which is 22.52% and 52.43% higher than the investigated open-slot and split-tooth counterpart PMVMs. Finally, a prototype is fabricated and tested to validate the high-power-factor and high-torque-density features of the proposed hybrid-CW PMVM.

Phase Compensation Factor-Based Low Frequency Crossing for Sensorless Induction Motor Drives With Changing Loads

This article deals with speed observation methods for sensorless induction motor drives (SIMD). The speed observability of SIMD near zero stator frequency is a well-known concern. Using adaptive magnetizing current, existing methods are capable of crossing the zero-stator-frequency line, but still limited to constant load conditions. To solve these problems, this paper presents a phase compensation factor-based low frequency crossing method with changing loads (PCF-LFCCL) to realize low frequency crossing process with decreased overcurrent and speed spikes. Firstly, the influence of load variations is studied finely, the LFCCL method is proposed with adaptive magnetizing current. Secondly, the torque output capacity analysis is given and illustrated. On this basis, the synchronous speed limit can be adopted properly. Thirdly, a generalized current model is developed for SIMD. The model reveals the phase delay phenomenon between magnetizing current reference and actual torque current, which can lead to speed spikes and overcurrent. To address this issue, a phase compensation factor (PCF) based method is developed by reconstructing compensation values to correct the torque current. Finally, comparative experiments are presented to validate the PCF-LFCCL method, including stator resistance error test for parameter robustness.

Comparison of electronic versus mechanical torque-limiting devices for dental implants: An in vitro study.

To determine the accuracy of new electronic torque-limiting devices (ET) when compared to new and used conventional-style beam-type (BT) mechanical torque-limiting devices and hand-piece style (HS) mechanical torque-limiting devices. The secondary purpose was to compare any difference in accuracy between new and used mechanical torque-limiting devices, and any difference in accuracy when used on a straight versus an angled screw channel abutment. A total of five torque-limiting devices were used to obtain 2000 readings under standardized conditions. An implant analog was fastened into a digital torque meter, to which an abutment was connected. Pre-determined torque values of 15 Ncm and 35 Ncm were applied, and actual torque values were recorded. A straight and an angled abutment were used to record 1000 readings each using the five torque-limiting devices. An overall Kruskal-Wallis test was applied to compare the median deviation among devices followed by a pairwise comparison ( = 0.05). For a target torque value of 15 Ncm on a straight abutment, the electronic device (ET) was statistically more accurate than the beam type (BT) new (p < 0.001) and used (p < 0.048) devices but less accurate than the hand-piece style (HS) used device (p < 0.001). On an angled abutment for a target value of 15 Ncm, the electronic device (ET) was statistically more accurate than hand-piece style (HS) new and used devices (p < 0.001). For a target torque value of 35 Ncm on a straight abutment, the ET was statistically more accurate than the HS new device (p < 0.001) but less accurate than the BT new device (p < 0.001). On an angled abutment for a target value of 35 Ncm, the electronic device (ET) was statistically less accurate than the beam-type (BT) new device (p < 0.001), the beam-type (BT) used device (p = 0.001), and the hand-piece style (HS) used device (p < 0.001). The electronic device (ET) was the only device accurate within the ISO standard of accuracy of 6% for each of the target torque value/abutment design combinations. There was no statistically significant difference related to the type of abutment used (angled vs. straight). Electronic torque limiting devices (ET) are an acceptable method for delivering torque for implant restorations for straight and angled abutments at 15 Ncm and 35 Ncm torque values. Conventional style beam-type (BT) mechanical torque-limiting devices are a simple, predictable, validated, and inexpensive tool for delivering accurate torque at 15 Ncm and 35 Ncm torque values. The hand-piece style (HS) mechanical torque-limiting devices are predictable to deliver 15 Ncm torque values.

Active torque-based gait adjustment multi-level control strategy for lower limb patient–exoskeleton coupling system in rehabilitation training

This paper proposes an active torque-based gait adjustment multi-level control strategy for lower limb patient–exoskeleton coupling system (LLPECS) in rehabilitation training. The proposed controller has three levels of high, middle, and low sub-controllers: gait adjustment layer (high-level), interaction torque design layer (middle-level), and trajectory tracking layer (low-level). The high-level sub-controller uses an adaptive central pattern generator (ACPG) to adjust the desired gait for rehabilitation training according to the patient’s active torque. In the middle-level sub-controller, the desired interaction torque is designed with neural networks and the estimated muscle torque by utilizing nonlinear disturbance observer (NDO). In the low-level sub-controller, a time delay estimation-based prescribed performance model free control is designed for the accurate tracking performance of the exoskeleton, so as to make the actual interaction torque track the desired value. An exoskeleton virtual prototype, which is developed in SolidWorks, has been imported to MATLAB/Simulink to conduct co-simulations in the SimMechanics environment. The results of co-simulations demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed control strategy when the patient’s muscle torque is at different recovery degrees.

Throttling Loss Energy-Regeneration System Based on Pressure Difference Pump Control for Electric Forklifts

At present, the hydraulic systems of electric forklifts and traditional internal combustion forklifts are mostly valve-controlled speed-regulation systems, which have large throttling losses and potential energy waste. To further improve the energy-saving ability of electric forklifts, the forklift’s common working conditions are analyzed in this paper. A throttling loss energy-regeneration system based on pressure difference pump control is designed, and the system’s working principle is described. Aiming to deal with the problem that the pump−valve compound speed regulation with constant pressure difference could not realize high controllability and energy saving at the same time, a control strategy for variable pressure difference pump−valve compound speed regulation based on pressure balance control is proposed. The handle signal is positively related to the target speed of the oil cylinder. In the low-speed stage, the closed-loop control of the actual output torque of the motor/generator keeps the pressure difference across the proportional throttle valve unchanged, and the speed adjustment is realized by changing the opening of the proportional throttle valve. In the high-speed stage, the valve opening area is kept unchanged and the target pressure difference is changed to achieve the target speed. Finally, the feasibility of the control strategy is verified through an AMESim simulation, and the minimum pressure difference switching point is determined through experiments. The experiments show that the system’s energy-saving efficiency can reach 21.5% under a 1 t load. With the increase in the load, the system’s energy-saving efficiency can be further improved.

Regenerative Braking Control Strategy Based on Pavement Recognition Controller for Electric Vehicle

Regenerative braking is a key technology for electric vehicles to improve energy efficiency and extend driving range. Considering the impact of road surface adhesion coefficient in the regenerative braking process of vehicles is a meaningful but challenging problem. To effectively utilize the pavement adhesion coefficient and improve the brake energy recovery effect, a pavement observer‐based regenerative braking control strategy for pure electric vehicles is proposed. The control strategy can identify the pavement based on correction factor by analogy idea according to the real‐time state information of vehicles. The optimal braking force distribution coefficient under different pavements is obtained by Fmincon function based on interior point algorithm. The effectiveness of the control strategy is verified by Simulink/CarSim software cosimulation and road test. The results show that the braking time of the proposed regenerative braking control strategy is reduced by 8.2% and the average actual feedback braking torque is increased by 17.6% in dry asphalt conditions compared with the fixed proportional distribution control strategy. Under the premise of effectively ensuring the braking stability and safety of the vehicle, more energy generated during braking can be recovered.

The role of torque feedback in standing balance.

It has been proposed that sensory force/pressure cues are integrated within a positive feedback mechanism, which accounts for the slow dynamics of human standing behavior and helps align the body with gravity. However, experimental evidence of this mechanism remains scarce. This study tested predictions of a positive torque feedback mechanism for standing balance, specifically that differences between a "reference" torque and actual torque are self-amplified, causing the system to generate additional torque. Seventeen healthy young adults were positioned in an apparatus that permitted normal sway at the ankle until a brake on the apparatus was applied, discreetly "locking" body movement during stance. Once locked, a platform positioned under the apparatus remained in place (0 mm) or slowly translated backward (3 mm or 6 mm), tilting subjects forward. Postural behavior was characterized by two distinct responses: the center of pressure (COP) offset (i.e., change in COP elicited by the surface translation) and the COP drift (i.e., change in COP during the sustained tilt). Model simulations were performed using a linear balance control model containing torque feedback to provide a conceptual basis for the interpretation of experimental results. Holding the body in sustained tilt positions resulted in COP drifting behavior, reflecting attempts of the balance control system to restore an upright position through increases in plantar flexor torque. In line with predictions of positive torque feedback, larger COP offsets led to faster increases in COP over time. These findings provide experimental support for a positive torque feedback mechanism involved in the control of standing balance.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Using model simulations and a novel experimental approach, we tested behavioral predictions of a sensory torque feedback mechanism involved in the control of upright standing. Torque feedback is thought to reduce the effort required to stand and play a functional role in slowly aligning the body with gravity. Our results provide experimental evidence of a torque feedback mechanism and offer new and valuable insights into the sensorimotor control of human balance.