Acrylamide Formation In Foods Research Articles

Application of Cations, Acids, and Antioxidants on Mitigating Acrylamide Formation in Food with a Special Focus on Potato and Cereal Based Foods - A Review

Acrylamide is a toxic substance that formsin food during high-temperature processing methods such as deep-frying, baking, and roasting, through the Maillard reaction or the acrolein pathway. Since acrylamide has been identified for its carcinogenicity, genotoxicity, and neurotoxicity, global food authorities have established benchmark levels for different food categories. Consequently, researchers have proposed various mitigation strategies, focusing on agronomical, chemical, physical, and microbial approaches. However, most of these approaches are associated with high cost, technology, extended time, and poor sensory and nutritional quality. In this context, application of various additives such as metal cations, organic and inorganic acids, and antioxidants in optimum amounts have been effective in reducing acrylamide formation. Additives contribute to reducing acrylamide either by interacting with its precursors and/or intermediate products or by breaking down acrylamide into other non-toxic substances. Since cations can form thermostable asparagine/matrix intermediates through chelation reaction between asparagine and metal cations, asparagine will be unavailable to react with carbonyl compounds to form the Schiff base. Lower pH conditions inhibit the acrylamide formation by blocking the protonation of the α-amino group of asparagine and reducing any possibility for nucleophilic addition reactions with carbonyl groups. Toxicity associated with Maillard products can be reduced by using antioxidants in the frying oil or the food. Polyphenols are capable of reducing the acrylamide formation by directly trapping acrylamide at elevated temperature. It is essential to identify the most appropriate additive, its concentration and the optimum process conditions when applying additives to get an optimal acrylamide inhibition. This review article highlights the effect of various additive applications, their effectiveness and possible future advances in food to control acrylamide formation within the accepted level.Keywords: Acrylamide, Antioxidant, Carcinogenicity, Deep-frying, Maillard reaction

Safety evaluation of the food enzyme asparaginase from the genetically modified Aspergillus niger strain ASP.

The food enzyme asparaginase (l-asparagine amidohydrolase; EC 3.5.1.1) is produced with the genetically modified Aspergillus niger strain ASP by DSM Food Specialties B.V. The genetic modifications do not give rise to safety concerns. The food enzyme was considered free from viable cells of the production organism and its DNA. The food enzyme is intended to be used in the prevention of acrylamide formation in foods and in the processing of yeast and yeast products. Dietary exposure to the food enzyme-total organic solids (TOS) was estimated to be up to 0.792 mg TOS/kg body weight (bw) per day in European populations. Genotoxicity tests did not indicate a safety concern. The systemic toxicity was assessed by means of a repeated dose 90-day oral toxicity study in rats. The Panel identified a no observed adverse effect level at the highest dose tested of 1038 mg TOS/kg bw per day, which when compared with the estimated dietary exposure, resulted in a margin of exposure of at least 1311. A search for the similarity of the amino acid sequence of the food enzyme to known allergens was made and no match was found. The Panel considered that the risk of allergic reactions upon dietary exposure cannot be excluded, but the likelihood is low. Based on the data provided, the Panel concluded that this food enzyme does not give rise to safety concerns, under the intended conditions of use.

Dietary Acrylamide: A Detailed Review on Formation, Detection, Mitigation, and Its Health Impacts.

In today's fast-paced world, people increasingly rely on a variety of processed foods due to their busy lifestyles. The enhanced flavors, vibrant colors, and ease of accessibility at reasonable prices have made ready-to-eat foods the easiest and simplest choice to satiate hunger, especially those that undergo thermal processing. However, these foods often contain an unsaturated amide called 'Acrylamide', known by its chemical name 2-propenamide, which is a contaminant formed when a carbohydrate- or protein-rich food product is thermally processed at more than 120 °C through methods like frying, baking, or roasting. Consuming foods with elevated levels of acrylamide can induce harmful toxicity such as neurotoxicity, hepatoxicity, cardiovascular toxicity, reproductive toxicity, and prenatal and postnatal toxicity. This review delves into the major pathways and factors influencing acrylamide formation in food, discusses its adverse effects on human health, and explores recent techniques for the detection and mitigation of acrylamide in food. This review could be of interest to a wide audience in the food industry that manufactures processed foods. A multi-faceted strategy is necessary to identify and resolve the factors responsible for the browning of food, ensure safety standards, and preserve essential food quality traits.

Acrylamide in food products and the role of electrochemical biosensors in its detection: a comprehensive review.

In this review, the mechanisms of acrylamide formation in food, along with aspects related to its toxicity and associated consumption risks, are investigated, highlighting the potential impact on human health. European regulations regarding acrylamide content in food products are also addressed, emphasizing the importance of monitoring and detecting this substance in nutrition, by public health protection measures. The primary objective of the research is to explore and analyze innovative methods for detecting acrylamide in food, with a particular focus on electrochemical biosensors. This research direction is motivated by the need to develop rapid, sensitive, and efficient monitoring techniques for this toxic compound in food products, considering the associated consumption risks. The research has revealed several significant results. Studies have shown that electrochemical biosensors based on hemoglobin exhibited increased sensitivity and low detection limits, capable of detecting very low concentrations of acrylamide in processed foods. Additionally, it has been found that the use of functionalized nanomaterials, such as carbon nanotubes and gold nanoparticles, has led to the improvement of electrochemical biosensor performance in acrylamide detection. The integration of these technological innovations and functionalization strategies has enhanced the sensitivity, specificity, and stability of biosensors in measuring acrylamides. Thus, the results of this research offer promising perspectives for the development of precise and efficient methods for monitoring acrylamides in food, contributing to the improvement of food quality control and the protection of consumer health.

Enhancing biotechnological applications of l-asparaginase: Immobilization on amino-epoxy-agarose for improved catalytic efficiency and stability

l-asparaginase has been shown to be effective in reducing acrylamide formation in food and in treating certain cancers, such as acute lymphoblastic leukemia. This study aimed to improve the application of l-asparaginase in these areas, through its immobilization in two distinct supports: epoxy-agarose and amino-epoxy-agarose. Different immobilization conditions were investigated, including immobilization pH and buffer concentration. The best activity results were obtained employing amino-epoxy-agarose, being the 0.1 M sodium carbonate buffer pH 10 the conditions that offered the highest immobilization yield (76%), immobilization efficiency (89.8%) and relative activity (68.2%). Immobilization of l-asparaginase in amino-epoxy-agarose improved its catalytic efficiency and stability, including at pH 4 and 60 °C. All immobilized biocatalysts preserved more than 70% of their activity after 7 cycles of reuse, and maintained about 82% of their activity after 60 days of storage at 4°C. These results show the efficacy of immobilized biocatalysts in the preservation of enzymatic activity and highlight their potential for biotechnological applications.

Acrylamide mitigation in foods using recombinant L-asparaginase: An extremozyme from Himalayan Pseudomonas sp. PCH182

Acrylamide has received worldwide attention due to its existence in commonly consumed foods. L-asparaginase reduces acrylamide formation in foods by hydrolyzing available L-asparagine. Herein, L-asparaginase (Ps-ASNase II) of Pseudomonas sp. PCH182 was expressed in Escherichia coli (E. coli), purified, and evaluated for acrylamide reduction in food samples. The monomeric 37 kDa Ps-ASNase II protein was purified to homogeneity with a 70 % yield. The enzyme was active at a wide pH range (5.0–11.0) and temperature (10–80 °C) with optimum activity at 45 °C in 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.5) after 10 min. The Km and Vmax for L-asparagine were 0.52 ± 0.06 mM and 42.55 ± 4.0 U/mg, respectively. Also, the half-life and Kd value of the enzyme at 37 °C was 458 min and 1.51 × 10−3/min, suggesting its higher stability. Consistently, the enzyme retained 62 % residual activity after 60 days of storage at 4 °C. The Ps-ASNase II enzyme (5 U/mL) treatment of raw potato chips resulted in 90 % asparagine hydrolysis exhibiting high efficiency. Ps-ASNase II (5 U/mL) treated potato chips significantly reduced acrylamide content by 73 % at 37 °C within 24 min compared to untreated controls. Collectively, these findings verified Ps-ASNase’s effectiveness and capability to lower acrylamide formation in fried potato chips without altering the food product's nutritional profile.

Construction of L-Asparaginase Stable Mutation for the Application in Food Acrylamide Mitigation

Acrylamide, a II A carcinogen, widely exists in fried and baked foods. L-asparaginase can inhibit acrylamide formation in foods, and enzymatic stability is the key to its application. In this study, the Escherichia coli L-asparaginase (ECA) stable variant, D60W/L211R/L310R, was obtained with molecular dynamics (MD) simulation, saturation mutation, and combinatorial mutation, the half-life of which increased to 110 min from 60 min at 50 °C. Furthermore, the working temperature (maintaining the activity above 80%) of mutation expanded from 31 °C–43 °C to 35 °C–55 °C, and the relative activity of mutation increased to 82% from 65% at a pH range of 6–10. On treating 60 U/mL and 100 U/g flour L-asparaginase stable mutant (D60W/L211R/L310R) under uncontrolled temperature and pH, the acrylamide content of potato chips and bread was reduced by 66.9% and 51.7%, which was 27% and 49.9% higher than that of the wild type, respectively. These results demonstrated that the mutation could be of great potential to reduce food acrylamide formation in practical applications.

A Novel L-Asparaginase from Hyperthermophilic Archaeon Thermococcus sibiricus: Heterologous Expression and Characterization for Biotechnology Application.

L-asparaginase (L-ASNase) is a vital enzyme with a broad range of applications in medicine and food industry. Drawbacks of current commercial L-ASNases stimulate the search for better-producing sources of the enzyme, and extremophiles are especially attractive in this view. In this study, a novel L-asparaginase originating from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus sibiricus (TsA) was expressed in Escherichia coli, purified and characterized. The enzyme is optimally active at 90 °C and pH 9.0 with a specific activity of 2164 U/mg towards L-asparagine. Kinetic parameters KM and Vmax for the enzyme are 2.8 mM and 1200 µM/min, respectively. TsA is stable in urea solutions 0–6 M and displays no significant changes of the activity in the presence of metal ions Ni2+, Cu2+, Mg2+, Zn2+ and Ca2+ and EDTA added in concentrations 1 and 10 mmol/L except for Fe3+. The enzyme retains 86% of its initial activity after 20 min incubation at 90 °C, which should be enough to reduce acrylamide formation in foods processed at elevated temperatures. TsA displays strong cytotoxic activity toward cancer cell lines K562, A549 and Sk-Br-3, while normal human fibroblasts WI-38 are almost unsensitive to it. The enzyme seems to be a promising candidate for further investigation and biotechnology application.

Impact of thermal processing on levels of acrylamide in a wheat‐lentil flour matrix

AbstractA growing demand for plant‐based protein has seen a resurgence in the utilisation of pulses such as lentil and chickpea as a protein‐rich substrate to produce food products traditionally based on animal or cereal protein. Additionally, pulses offer metabolic benefits due to the bioactivity of compounds including phenolic acids, simple and complex carbohydrates and a more complete amino‐acid profile which is not found in cereal grains. However, there is an increasing concern in the formation of acrylamide in food which occurs when asparagine, an abundant amino acid found in pulses, forms a complex with the reducing sugars; glucose, fructose, and maltose. Recent studies in animal models have shown that acrylamide is carcinogenic and therefore is a concern for humans. High levels of acrylamide have been reported particularly in fried products, primarily due to the Maillard reaction which amplifies the formation of acrylamide. This study investigated the levels of acrylamide in bread, cookies, and extruded products prepared with wheat‐lentil composite flour. Our research found that extrusion resulted in a significantly lower concentration of acrylamide compared to traditional baking. Additionally, increasing the amount of lentil within the composite significantly increased the net concentration of acrylamide for all bread, cookies and extrudate products.

Non-invasive Neurologic Assessment in Recovery and Treatment Phase Acrylamide Exposure in Ageing Wistar Rats

Acrylamide is a chemical that naturally forms in starchy food products during every day high temperature cooking. The ingredients, storage and processing conditions greatly influence acrylamide formation in food. Home-cooking choices can have a substantial impact on the level of acrylamide humans are exposed to through the diet. This study scientifically determined the neurologic impact of acrylamide treatment and recovery in male wistar rats of different ages. A total of 20 male wistar rats were randomly sampled into 4 groups aged 45, 60, 75 and 90 days. The treatment dose was 50 mg/kg of acrylamide for 7 days. The study duration was 15 days with 2 phases; day 1 to 7 for exposure phase and day 8 to 14 as recovery phase after acrylamide exposure. Neurologic tests performed include open field test (OFT), buried reward test (BRT) and hand grip test (HGT). The study data was statistically significant at a confidence interval less or equal to 95%. Acrylamide adversely affected the tested physiologic responses in all ages during the phase of exposure. The distance covered and escape attempts were significantly reduced in all ages during acrylamide exposure phase with significant recovery in 45 and 60 days old animals. Group 45 and 60 days old animals had a wider field area during recovery phase but no observed improvement in exploratory behavior in ages 75 and 90 days. Olfactory and neuromuscular function was significantly improved in all age groups during recovery, however, the response of ages 45, 60 and 75 were similar during recovery. In this study, Acrylamide caused manifestations typical of a neurotoxic agent. The neurologic effect of acrylamide may be reversed if exposure period with the studied dose is within 7 days. Recovery in cognitive, exploratory, emotional, olfactory and neuromuscular function may be dependent on age during exposure.

Effect of Microwave Heating on the Acrylamide Formation in Foods

Acrylamide (AA) is a neurotoxic and carcinogenic substance that has recently been discovered in food. One of the factors affecting its formation is the heat treatment method. This review discusses the microwave heating as one of the methods of thermal food processing and the influence of microwave radiation on the acrylamide formation in food. In addition, conventional and microwave heating were compared, especially the way they affect the AA formation in food. Available studies demonstrate differences in the mechanisms of microwave and conventional heating. These differences may be beneficial or detrimental depending on different processes. The published studies showed that microwave heating at a high power level can cause greater AA formation in products than conventional food heat treatment. The higher content of acrylamide in microwave-heated foods may be due to differences in its formation during microwave heating and conventional methods. At the same time, short exposure to microwaves (during blanching and thawing) at low power may even limit the formation of acrylamide during the final heat treatment. Considering the possible harmful effects of microwave heating on food quality (e.g., intensive formation of acrylamide), further research in this direction should be carried out.

Inhibition of acrylamide by glutathione in asparagine/glucose model systems and cookies

The inhibition effects of glutathione (GSH) on acrylamide (AA) in the asparagine/glucose model systems and cookies were investigated. The formation of AA was significantly inhibited by GSH addition in the model systems. The decreasing levels of AA were in the range of 38–86%, 57–82%, and 3–41% at 120, 140, and 160 °C, respectively. In addition, the presence of GSH in cookies also inhibited the AA formation, but with no corresponding relationship between the GSH level and the inhibition ratio. The addition of 0.05 g/kg GSH in cookie dough resulted in the decreasing of AA by 48%, some improvement in cookie lightness, but no influence on cookie texture. Kinetic analysis showed that the application of GSH not only inhibited the formation of AA but also improved the elimination of AA. In the summary, GSH could be a potential inhibitor to reduce the AA formation in food during the heating process.

A Review on Acrylamide in Food: Occurrence, Toxicity, and Mitigation Strategies.

Acrylamide (AA) is a food contaminant present in a wide range of frequently consumed foods, which makes human exposure to this toxicant unfortunately unavoidable. However, efforts to reduce the formation of AA in food have resulted in some success. This review aims to summarize the occurrence of AA and the potential mitigation strategies of its formation in foods. Formation of AA in foods is mainly linked to Maillard reaction, which is the first feasible route that can be manipulated to reduce AA formation. Furthermore, manipulating processing conditions such as time and temperature of the heating process, and including certain preheating treatments such as soaking and blanching, can further reduce AA formation. Due to the high exposure to AA, recognition of its toxic effect is necessary, especially in developing countries where awareness about AA health risks is still very low. Therefore, this review also focuses on the different toxic effects of AA exposure, including neurotoxicity, genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, reproductive toxicity, hepatotoxicity, and immunotoxicity.

Effect of the brewing process on the acrylamide content in coffee beverages

AbstractOne of the latest neurotoxic and carcinogenic substances discovered in food is acrylamide (AA). The main pathway for AA formation in foods is the Maillard reaction (MR). Heat treated carbohydrate-rich foods such as potato, cereal and bakery products, together with coffee contain high levels of acrylamide. The high consumption of coffee in many countries makes it a potentially significant source of daily exposure to acrylamide. The purpose of the present investigation was to study the influence of the brewing method on the acrylamide level in coffee beverages. The experiment was performed with six different roasted coffee from local supermarkets. For coffee beverages preparation four different methods were used: boiled coffee (Turkish coffee), steeping (French press coffee), infusion (filtered coffee), and Italian pressure method (espresso coffee). Each time coffee beans were mechanically powdered and 100 ml brew was prepared using 6 g of ground coffee. AA contents in the brew coffee samples were determined by the RP - HPLC - DAD method. The results for AA contents were presented as mean values ± standard deviations (SDs) of six independent samples, analysed in triplicate (n = 18). Obtained results showed that the method of brewing coffee influences the level of AA in infusions. AA concentrations for Turkish coffee (4.10 μg/100 ml), French press (3.19 μg/100 ml) and filtered coffee (2.95 μg/100 ml) were higher than for espresso (2.13 μg/100 ml). Results showed also that the highly water-soluble acrylamide is easily extracted from the ground coffee to the liquid phase of the beverage. The extraction percentage variation according to the brew method was: from 52% for espresso to 95% for Turkish coffee. The brewing procedure for espresso extracted acrylamide incompletely from ground coffee comparing to other brewing methods, due to the short contact time between coffee and water. When compared with other common coffee beverages, espresso is the most concentrated brew. However, its acrylamide content per cup may be lower, due to the lower level of this substance extraction to the brew. The brewing time has a significant influence on the extraction level of AA for the beverage.

Mechanisms of Acrylamide Formation in Foods, Acrylamide Content of Foods and Its Effect on Human Health

Maillard reaksiyonu sonucu oluşan akrilamidin toksik nitelikte bir
 bileşik olduğu bildirilmektedir. Isı Maillard esmerleşme ürünleri oluşumuna yol
 açtığı koşullarda ayrıca gıdalarda akrilamid oluşumuna da neden olabilmektedir.
 Akrilamidin insan vücuduna girişi sindirim yoluyla ve deriden emilimi ile
 gerçekleşmektedir. Gıdalarda akrilamidin lipit, karbonhidrat veya serbest aminoasitlerin
 degradasyonu sonucu oluşan akrolein veya akrilik asit yoluyla, malik, laktik ve
 sitrik asit gibi organik asitlerden su veya karboksil grubu kaybedilmesiyle ve
 aminoasitlerden doğrudan oluşum mekanizmasıyla ortaya çıkabileceği belirtilmektedir.
 Yaygın olan görüş ise, gıdalarda akrilamidin bir aminoasit olan asparajin ile
 basit şekerlerin (indirgen özellikli) reaksiyonu sonucu oluştuğu şeklindedir.
 Akrilamidin kansorejonik olan monomerik formunun yüksek sıcaklık uygulanmış
 (120°C üzerinde) gıdalarda oluştuğu belirtilmiştir. Araştırıcılarca gıdalardaki
 akrilamid düzeyinin gıdanın çeşidi ve üretim şekline bağlı olarak farklılık
 gösterdiği belirtilmektedir. Akrilamidin en fazla bulunduğu gıdalar; patates
 cipsi, patates kızartması, mısır cipsi, bisküvi, kraker ve tost edilmiş gevrek
 unlu mamuller, ekmek ve benzeri unlu mamuller, kahvaltılık tahıllar ve kahve
 gibi ürünlerdir. Bu çalışmada, gıdalarda akrilamid oluşumunun mekanizmaları,
 oluşumu, farklı gıdaların akrilamid içerikleri ve akrilamidin insan sağlığı
 üzerindeki olumsuz etkileri derlenmiştir.

Acrylamide Induced Toxicity and the Propensity of Phytochemicals in Amelioration: A Review.

Acrylamide is widely found in baked and fried foods, produced in large amount in industries and is a prime component in toxicity. This review highlights various toxicities that are induced due to acrylamide, its proposed mode of action including oxidative stress cascades and ameliorative mechanisms using phytochemicals. Acrylamide formation, the mechanism of toxicity and the studies on the role of oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunctions are elaborated in this paper. The various types of toxicities caused by Acrylamide and the modulation studies using phytochemicals that are carried out on various type of toxicity like neurotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, cardiotoxicity, immune system, and skeletal system, as well as embryos have been explored. Lacunae of studies include the need to explore methods for reducing the formation of acrylamide in food while cooking and also better modulators for alleviating the toxicity and associated dysfunctions along with identifying its molecular mechanisms.

Important factors to consider for acrylamide mitigation in potato crisps using pulsed electric fields

Abstract This preliminary study aimed to compare the application of pulsed electric field (PEF) with a traditional blanching as pre-treatments before frying for the mitigation of acrylamide content in potato crisps. Measuring the degree of cell disintegration index (po) and the changes in water electrical conductivity during washing of potato slices, PEF protocol and sample preparation scheme were optimized. Peeled potato slices (thickness 1.5 ± 0.2 mm) were subjected to PEF (1.5 kV/cm, pulse duration 10 μs, total treatment time 10 ms, pulse frequency 100 Hz) and to blanching (85 °C for 3.5 min) pre-treatments and then to washing in water, evaluating the reduction of acrylamide precursors (reducing sugars and free asparagine). After frying (175 °C, 3 min), product quality, in terms of colour, texture and acrylamide content were evaluated. Results showed that PEF promoted acrylamide precursors leaching followed by a reduction of the final acrylamide content of around 30%, significantly higher if compared to the reduction obtained with blanching, with only slight modifications of the final quality of the product, in terms of colour and texture. Industrial relevance The Commission Regulation (EU) 2017/2158 of 20 November 2017 has introduced new benchmark levels and mitigation strategies for the reduction of the presence of acrylamide in foods, directing food businesses to the research of measures to lower the acrylamide formation in foods. The actual industrial production process of fried potato crisps involves the use of many mitigation strategies, such as a blanching of raw potatoes. However, the traditional blanching treatment presents several practical drawbacks and leads to undesirable changes of the product quality. The application of PEF as a pre-treatment could reduce the acrylamide content in deep-fat fried potato crisps. This preliminary study gives important indications regarding the possibility of combining a PEF pre-treatment on raw potato slices with subsequent industrial processing steps for the production of potato crisps with low acrylamide concentration.

Effect Of Acrylamide On Development Of Cerebellum In Albino Rat

Introduction: Acrylamide (ACR) is a neurotoxic material to animals and humans.Aim: To elucidate the possible structural changes that may occur in cerebellum of male albino rat offspring after oral administration of acrylamide to their pregnant and lactating mothers.Material and Methods: After mating, 54 pregnant female rats were divided equally into three groups. Group A: did not receive any treatment and group B: received 10mgkgday of acrylamide orally from day 7 (D7) of gestation until birth. While, group C received the same dose and route of acrylamide from D7 of gestation until postnatal day (PD) 21. The male pups of each group were divided into subgroups according to the PD of sacrifice; PD7, PD14, and PD21 respectively. Cerebellum specimens were processed for light microscopy, immunohistochemistry, morphometeric and statistical studies.Results: With acrylamide treatment, the general observation revealed signals of neurological abnormalities. There were histopathological degenerative changes in the architecture of the cerebellum of all treated groups. These changes were greatly increased from group B to group C. Postnatally, pia mater detachment, cavitations, hemorrhage within folds and degenerated changes of all granular layers and Purkinje cells (PC) were observed. Statistically, a highly significant decrease in the thickness of external granular layer and number of normal PC was revealed in groups B and C when compared with group A. While area % of the bcl-2 immunoexpression showed a high significant increase.Conclusion: Acrylamide adversely affected the structure of the developing cerebellum of albino rat offspring exposed during gestation and lactation periods. The severity of these changes was increased with longer period of exposure. Further measures should be needed to minimize acrylamide formation in food.

Free asparagine and sugars profile of cereal species: the potential of cereals for acrylamide formation in foods

ABSTRACTCereals-based food is one of the major source of Maillard reaction products in the diet. Free amino acids and reducing sugars are considered to be the main precursors in the formation of these heat-induced compounds. In order to determine genetic resources with reduced potential for acrylamide formation, the content of sugars as well as free asparagine were analysed in a total of 30 cultivars of 10 varieties belonging to eight species (Triticum aestivum var. lutescens, T. aestivum var. alba, T. aestivum var. compactum, T. durum, T. spelta, T. dicoccum, Secale cereale, Hordeum vulgare var. nudum, Avena sativa var. nudum, and Zea mays var. indentata) grown at the same location in the 2015 growing season. Our results provide evidence of differences in the content of sugars and asparagine between and within species of small grain cereals and maize. The highest content of glucose, fructose and asparagine was found in cultivars of rye and hull-less oat. All maize varieties examined contained significantly higher amounts of non-reducing and total sugars (on average 1.25% and 2.36%, respectively) than small cereal grain species. Principal component analysis showed a high positive correlation between monoreducing sugars and asparagine in bread wheat, durum wheat and hull-less barley.

Protein Repair from Glycation by Glyoxals by the DJ-1 Family Maillard Deglycases.

DJ-1 and its prokaryotic homologs, Hsp31, YhbO and YajL from Escherichia coli and PfpI from Pyrococcus furiosus, repair proteins from glycation by glyoxals (R-CO-CHO), which constitute their major glycating agents. Glycation is a non-enzymatic covalent reaction discovered by Louis Camille Maillard in 1912, between reactive carbonyls (reducing sugars and glyoxals) and amino acids (cysteine, arginine and lysine), which inactivates proteins. By degrading Maillard adducts formed between carbonyls and thiols or amino groups, the DJ-1 family Maillard deglycases prevent the formation of the so-called advanced glycation end products (AGEs) that arise from Maillard adducts after dehydrations, oxidations and rearrangements. Since glycation is involved in ageing, cancer, atherosclerosis and cataracts, as well as post-diabetic, neurovegetatives and renal and autoimmune diseases, the DJ-1 deglycases are likely to play an important role in preventing these diseases. These deglycases, especially those from thermophilic organisms, may also be used to prevent the formation of dietary AGEs during food processing, sterilization and storage. They also prevent acrylamide formation in food, likely by degrading the asparagine/glyoxal Maillard adducts responsible for its formation. Since Maillard adducts are the substrates of the DJ-1 family deglycases, we propose renaming them Maillard deglycases.