Acrylamide Content In Food Research Articles

Low asparagine wheat: Europe's first field trial of genome edited wheat amid rapidly changing regulations on acrylamide in food and genome editing of crops.

We review the undertaking of a field trial of low asparagine wheat lines in which the asparagine synthetase gene, TaASN2, has been knocked out using CRISPR/Cas9. The field trial was undertaken in 2021-2022 and represented the first field release of genome edited wheat in Europe. The year of the field trial and the period since have seen rapid changes in the regulations covering both the field release and commercialisation of genome edited crops in the UK. These historic developments are reviewed in detail. Free asparagine is the precursor for acrylamide formation during high-temperature cooking and processing of grains, tubers, storage roots, beans and other crop products. Consequently, work on reducing the free asparagine concentration of wheat and other cereal grains, as well as the tubers, beans and storage roots of other crops, is driven by the need for food businesses to comply with current and potential future regulations on acrylamide content of foods. The topic illustrates how strategic and applied crop research is driven by regulations and also needs a supportive regulatory environment in which to thrive.

Curative efficacy of polyphenols against acrylamide induced toxicity and analysis of acrylamide in Indian food by LCMS method

Acrylamide (AA) is formed during the processing of food at high temperature. It is an alarming need to quantify AA content in food as it is reported to be neurotoxic and carcinogenic. Aim of this study was to evaluate the concentration of AA in different foodstuffs of India's Gwalior region, using the LC-MS technique. A total of 100 food samples were collected from the local market. The curative role of polyphenolic compounds (kaempferol, linolic acid, Caffeic Acid, and Hesperidin) at the dose of 20 mg/kg was also evaluated against acrylamide-induced toxicity in rats by performing hematological, LFTs and KFTs marker. By calculating chromatographic peaks, out of 100 samples, 77 showed positive AA levels ranging from 0.08 µg/kg–2600 µg/kg. The highest concentration of AA was found in aloo lachche (2600 µg/kg) followed by aloo bhujia (1401 µg/kg). Our experimental results revealed that polyphenols significantly recovered all the altered parameters caused by AA toxicity toward normal, which may be due to their antioxidant capacity.

Trends in the acrylamide content of potato products in Poland in the years 2004–2020

This study aimed to analyse the acrylamide content of potato products tested as part of nationwide monitoring studies in 2004–2020, and to assess trends in the changes in the compound level over 17 years. The analysis of trends in the acrylamide content of individual potato product categories was carried out using the non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis rank-sum test, assuming the significance of differences at p < 0.05. The highest median, statistically significant (p < 0.001), acrylamide content was found in potato crisps (388 μg/kg), followed by French fries sampled from bars and restaurants (272 μg/kg) as well as French fries prepared from pre-fried frozen semi-finished products (172 μg/kg). A significant (p < 0.01) downward trend in the acrylamide content was found in all three potato product categories tested. The result analysis showed that, during the applicability period (2011–2020) of legislation relating to indicative value/benchmark levels, the aforementioned values were exceeded in single samples only, which represented less than 2.5% of all samples tested. In all three potato product categories, a significant (p < 0.0001) downward trend of acrylamide content in potato products was observed over the 17 years studied. Both potato product manufacturers and legislators should take more effective measures to further reduce the acrylamide content in food. Given the adverse effects of acrylamide on human health, reducing its levels in food should be a priority in risk management.

Acrylamide variability and content in selected local and imported foods in Jordan

Acrylamide (AC) is a processing contaminant that is formed in some heated starchy food because of Maillard reaction, which involves a reaction between the reducing sugars glucose and fructose, and the amino acid asparagine and there are concerns about its carcinogenicity. In Jordan, limited data is available on AC content in food, especially local and cultural items. Therefore, the present study aimed to estimate the AC content in selected locally produced and consumed food items in Jordan. Acrylamide concentration in 91 selected food items was measured using ELISA kit. In general, the levels of AC in 67% of all food items were over 100 µg/ kg, where AC concentration ranged from 24 – 3403 µg/ kg. Within the bread and bakery products, the highest AC concentration was found in unsweetened Arabic rusk products (kirshalah) (268 ± 36.6µg/ kg). In the snack and fast- food groups, the highest mean level was in potato chips (1339 ± 1175 µg/ kg) followed by fried potato (498 ± 90.5 µg/kg). Falafel was found to contain (106 ± 21.1 µg/kg). The concentration of AC in traditional Arabic baked sweets such as kunafeh, baqlawah and haresah had levels of 198 ± 3.5, 101 ± 14.8 and 96 ± 8.5 µg/ kg, respectively. The current study provided a base-line data on AC concentration in some Jordanian foods and selected imported snacks. A considerable variation in AC content within each type of locally produced food items was found. The highest AC concentration among the selected local and imported food items in Jordan was in potato products (chips and French fries), followed by biscuits and kirshalleh. Acrylamide monitoring in targeted processed foods should be implemented. Furthermore, an effort needs to be made at national and industrial levels to improve the accuracy and precision of estimated dietary AC intake among different age groups in Jordan. Key words: Acrylamide, processing contaminant, Maillard reaction, ELISA, cereal products, fast food

Time Trends of Acrylamide Exposure in Europe: Combined Analysis of Published Reports and Current HBM4EU Studies

More than 20 years ago, acrylamide was added to the list of potential carcinogens found in many common dietary products and tobacco smoke. Consequently, human biomonitoring studies investigating exposure to acrylamide in the form of adducts in blood and metabolites in urine have been performed to obtain data on the actual burden in different populations of the world and in Europe. Recognizing the related health risk, the European Commission responded with measures to curb the acrylamide content in food products. In 2017, a trans-European human biomonitoring project (HBM4EU) was started with the aim to investigate exposure to several chemicals, including acrylamide. Here we set out to provide a combined analysis of previous and current European acrylamide biomonitoring study results by harmonizing and integrating different data sources, including HBM4EU aligned studies, with the aim to resolve overall and current time trends of acrylamide exposure in Europe. Data from 10 European countries were included in the analysis, comprising more than 5500 individual samples (3214 children and teenagers, 2293 adults). We utilized linear models as well as a non-linear fit and breakpoint analysis to investigate trends in temporal acrylamide exposure as well as descriptive statistics and statistical tests to validate findings. Our results indicate an overall increase in acrylamide exposure between the years 2001 and 2017. Studies with samples collected after 2018 focusing on adults do not indicate increasing exposure but show declining values. Regional differences appear to affect absolute values, but not the overall time-trend of exposure. As benchmark levels for acrylamide content in food have been adopted in Europe in 2018, our results may imply the effects of these measures, but only indicated for adults, as corresponding data are still missing for children.

SCREENING AND ISOLATION OF ASPARAGINASE PRODUCERS FROM SOIL SOURCE AND ITS APPLICATION IN FOOD PRODUCTS

Asparaginases have applications in the medical and food industry as part of an anticancer strategy and as a mechanism to reduce acrylamide content in food. Suspension of garden soil sample was plated on nutrient agar plate. Colonies were picked and screened for asparaginase activity on minimal media. Cultures were selected based on qualitative/quantitative assays. Culture characterization and identification was carried out with the help of microscopic and biochemical techniques, checking culture growth parameters on varied pH and temperatures. Application of the crude enzyme obtained from the asparaginase positive isolates was carried out by performing assays using a frozen ready-to-cook food sample - potato smileys. Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) of untreated and treated food samples was also performed to determine the levels of asparagine in the samples. Out of a total of 36 isolates, four were selected for the study; which were later identified as Pseudomonas putida. The assays showed enzyme activity in all four cultures. Most of the isolates were found to grow at 37°C and pH of 7 and 10. Effect of the enzyme on asparagine content in the potato smiley was also detected. Treated samples showed more absorbance than the untreated sample. TLC method indicated that treated samples showed aspartic acid spots, thus showing effect of the enzyme while untreated sample plate showed no asparagine spots suggesting that low amounts of asparagine are present in the sample, or the raw potato used.

ACRYLAMIDE IN DEEP-FRYING VERSUS AIR FRYING FOODS AND MITIGATION TREATMENTS: A REVIEW

Frying can contribute to intensifying oxidative reactions and the formation of acrylamide (AA), which is a compound derived from the Maillard Reaction, potentially toxic. Even so, fried foods are one of the most consumed foods worldwide. Innovative technologies such as air frying (AF) have been developed to this end. Thus, the objectives of this review were to systematize data on AA content in foods, compare the AF technique with immersion frying (FRIT), and assess the efficacy of pretreatments to reduce AA in foods exposed to AF. AF showed an average percentage reduction of AA content and colorimetric indicator a* of 41.4% and 58.7%, respectively. Asparaginase and plant extracts were effective in reducing AA formation, with mean reduction of 20.94% and 67.01%, respectively. AF proved to be a potentially efficient method for reducing AA in foods, and the use of pretreatments proved to be effective in reducing its formation even further.

Effects of Chickpea Protein on Carbohydrate Reactivity in Acrylamide Formation in Low Humidity Model Systems.

Asparagine and reducing sugars are the principal precursors of acrylamide in foods. Their main sources in pastries are flour and hen egg yolks. One method of reducing acrylamide content in food may be to add a chickpea protein preparation. The aim of the study was to determine the effects of the chickpea protein preparation on the thermodynamic properties of carbohydrates and the amount of acrylamide formed in low humidity model systems. In the studied systems, the type and amount of acrylamide precursors and humidity were designed to reflect the parameters typical of shortcrust cookies. In the study, the highest amounts of acrylamide were formed in the reaction between asparagine and fructose and the lowest in the reaction between asparagine and sucrose. Furthermore, the addition of chickpea protein to the analyzed carbohydrate–asparagine model systems reduced the content of acrylamide formed during baking at 180 °C regardless of the type of carbohydrate. The greatest acrylamide reduction (41%) was found in the model system containing fructose.

Mechanisms of Acrylamide Formation in Foods, Acrylamide Content of Foods and Its Effect on Human Health

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Acrylamide Content in Food Commodities Consumed in North Macedonia and Its Risk Assessment in the Population

Background: Acrylamide (AA) is an important food contaminant resulted from Maillard reaction during thermal processing of carbohydrate rich food commodities. The present paper reports the data for the AA content in some types of thermally processed starch rich food, and assessment of dietary exposure for the population in North Macedonia. Methods: The AA level was determined employing modified and validated ultra high performance liquid chromatography with tandem quadrupole detector. A total of 160 samples divided in seven most frequently consumed commodity groups were collected for determination of their AA content. Finally, chronic exposure of AA in the population was estimated. Statistical analysis was performed applying OriginPro 8 SR4 v8.0951 software package Results: The average AA levels varied from 126.9±122.4 μg/kg for bread samples to 494.5±127.1 μg/kg for French fries samples. The dietary exposure of the population from North Macedonia for the tested food commodities was estimated at 0.643±0.171 μgAA/kgbw/day. The main contributor to the total AA intake was bread, with estimated value at 0.394±0.150 μgAA/kgbw/day. The margin of exposure values were 528 and 264, respectively for neurotoxicity and non-plastic effect calculated on average intake. Conclusion: The risk assessment analysis revealed increased concern for human health regarding the neoplastic effects, especially for infants, toddlers, and adolescents. This is the first study related to AA presence in different food commodities in North Macedonia, and implies that monitoring programs and mitigation strategies must be implemented.

Acrylamide in daily food in the metropolitan area of Hanoi, Vietnam

ABSTRACTAcrylamide, a colourless and odourless crystalline solid, formed via the Maillard reaction in food, has been reported with harmful properties for humans, such as toxicity and carcinogenicity. Three hundred and four processed food samples from 17 product types, collected in Hanoi, Vietnam, were analyzed by LC-MS/MS to measure the acrylamide concentration. The limit of detection (LOD) and the limit of quantification (LOQ) of acrylamide were 1 µg Kg−1 and 3 µg Kg−1, respectively. Effectively, the highest acrylamide content is usually found in processed food, which is one of the primary reasons of increased acrylamide content in food. All French fried samples contained acrylamide above 500 µg kg−1. Acrylamide concentration in non-fried noodle, vermicelli, rice noodle, phở, dried vegetable, and rice cracker is lower than in potato chips, fried potatoes, fried cake, and fried noodles. The results could be helpful to estimate exposure and risk assessment of acrylamide in Vietnam.

Solution advances for acrylamide problem

Orkla Food Ingredients has licensed yeast from Canada’s Renaissance BioScience that reduces acrylamide content in food. When starchy foods are heated to more than 120 °C, naturally occurring asparagine turns into acrylamide, a carcinogen. The yeast, when used in baking or as an additive, consumes asparagine, reducing acrylamide formation by up to 95%, Renaissance says. Orkla will market the yeast, which is not yet commercial, in Europe.

Potato Production, Usage, and Nutrition—A Review

Potato is an economically important staple crop prevailing all across the world with successful large-scale production, consumption, and affordability with easy availability in the open market. Potatoes provide basic nutrients such as—carbohydrates, dietary fiber (skin), several vitamins, and minerals (e.g., potassium, magnesium, iron). On occasion exposures to raw and cooked potatoes impart allergic reactions. Dietary intake of potatoes, especially colored potatoes, play an important role in the production of antioxidant defense system by providing essential nutrient antioxidants, such as vitamins, β-carotene, polyphenols, and minerals. This may help lower the incidence of wide range of chronic and acute disease processes (like hypertension, heart diseases, cancer, neurodegenerative, and other diseases). However, retention of nutrients in potatoes is affected by various cooking and processing methods. Cooking at elevated temperature also produces acrylamide—a suspected carcinogen. Independent and/or collaborative studies have been conducted and reported on the various pathways leading to the formation of acrylamide in heat processed foods. This article reviews the latest research on potato production, consumption, nature of phytochemicals and their health benefits, and allergic reactions to children. Also included is the discovery of acrylamide in processed starch-rich foods including potatoes, mechanism of formation, detection methodologies, and mitigation steps to reduce acrylamide content in food.

Role of mercaptans on acrylamide elimination

Abstract The reaction between acrylamide and mercaptans (benzyl mercaptan and N -acetylcysteine) was studied in an attempt to clarify some of the reaction pathways by which amino acids affect the acrylamide content in foods. The obtained results showed that, in the absence of oxygen, mercaptans reacted very rapidly with acrylamide producing the corresponding addition product. The activation energy of this reaction was 28–30 kJ/mol. The produced adduct was stable and only trace amounts of acrylamide were formed by thermal heating of 3-(benzylthio)propanamide. In the presence of oxygen, the addition product was not observed but a higher amount of acrylamide disappeared, more likely as a consequence of radical reactions. These last reactions could be inhibited by antioxidants, which prevented acrylamide losses. All these results constitute a new proof of the complexity of the reactions involved in the formation and elimination of acrylamide in foods, which are also going to depend on the food composition and the presence of oxygen. Potential toxicities of the compounds formed between acrylamide and mercaptans still remain to be analysed.

Model Reactions of Acrylamide with Selected Amino Compounds

The reaction of acrylamide with amines, amino acids, and polypeptides was studied in an attempt to understand the role of amino compounds on acrylamide fate. The obtained results showed that amino compounds are added to acrylamide by means of a Michael addition to produce the corresponding 3-(alkylamino)propionamides. Although 3-(alkylamino)propionamides can also be added to a new molecule of acrylamide to produce a new adduct, this last adduct was not detected under the employed conditions in which the concentration of acrylamide was much lower than the concentration of the amino compounds. The produced 3-(alkylamino)propionamides were not stable, and the addition reaction was easily reversed by heating. Thus, acrylamide was produced from 3-(alkylamino)propionamides by means of an elimination reaction. However, the activation energies (E(a)) of both reactions are not the same. In fact, acrylamide seems to be converted into its Michael adduct with a lower activation energy than the elimination reaction of the Michael adduct. For this reason, when acrylamide was stored in the presence of glycine at 60 degrees C, acrylamide disappeared after 14 days. However, when these samples were heated again for 20 min at 180 degrees C, the equilibrium was reestablished and a significant amount of acrylamide was detected. All of these results suggest that amino compounds may play a significant role in the changes observed in acrylamide content in foods upon storage. In addition, they also point to 3-(alkylamino)propionamides as possible compounds in which acrylamide might be potentially hidden.

Risk-Benefit Considerations of Mitigation Measures on Acrylamide Content of Foods – A Case Study on Potatoes, Cereals and Coffee

This report produced by an independent Expert Group is the second commissioned by the ILSI Europe Task Force on Process-related Compounds. The first report, which reviewed human exposure and internal dose assessments of acrylamide in foods, stressed the need for comparison of added risks or reduced benefits ν. the benefit of acrylamide reduction. This second Expert Group was established to examine and report on the considerations for risk-benefit analysis of the mitigation measures on acyrylamide in commodities which contribute significantly to acrylamide exposure, and their impact on safety, quality, nutritional and organoleptic parameters; to position the relevance of the suspected side effects and to quantify their potential impact. The Expert Group was asked to focus on the impact of mitigation on exposure scenarios and the risk to human health using multidimensional risk assessment approaches. The report has four main objectives: 1. To summarise the impact of pre-harvest, post-harvest and processing conditions on acrylamide formation in potatoes, cereals and coffee. 2. To evaluate the impact of pre-harvest, post-harvest and processing conditions on the formation of acrylamide in these commodities. 3. To consider the nutritional value and beneficial health impact of consuming these commodities. 4. To calculate the impact of mitigation using probabilistic risk-benefit modelling to demonstrate the principle of this approach. Animal studies have shown that acrylamide is a genotoxic carcinogen. Under the premise that for genotoxic carcinogens no threshold levels of effect exists, exposure is to be minimized as far as possible. Minimization strategies therefore have been and consistently are developed, although direct evidence of carcinogenic effects in humans as a result of acrylamide intake is not available. The margin of exposure (MOE), representing the ratio between a defined point on the relevant dose-response curve, the bench mark dose lower limit (BMDL, 300 μg/kg body weight (bw) per day) and average (1 μg/kg bw per day) or high (4 μg/kg bw per day) consumer exposure has been estimated at 300 and 75, respectively. According to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) a MOE of ≥ 10 000 would indicate low concern, underlining that the relatively low MOE for acrylamide calls for rapid and effective mitigation measures in order to lower consumer exposure. Acrylamide production in foods is a consequence of the Maillard reaction between asparagine and reducing sugars. Therefore, factors affecting the concentration of these precursors in food, together with processing conditions during food preparation and storage will affect the final concentration of acrylamide in food. The commodities giving the highest exposure to acrylamide in the western diet are potatoes, cereals and coffee. The first two of these are staple foods providing for the majority of carbohydrate and some protein in the diet. Coffee is not an essential food, but has a high level of intake as a beverage, chosen not only for its flavour and hedonic value but also as a provider of caffeine. Acrylamide formation in foodstuffs depends on the concentrations and availability of the precursor molecules asparagine and reducing sugar(s).

Risk–benefit considerations of mitigation measures on acrylamide content of foods

Risk–benefit considerations of mitigation measures on acrylamide content of foods

Toxicokinetics of acrylamide and glycidamide in Fischer 344 rats

Acrylamide (AA) is a widely studied industrial chemical that is neurotoxic, mutagenic to somatic and germ cells, and carcinogenic in rodents. The recent discovery of AA at ppm levels in a wide variety of commonly consumed foods has energized research efforts worldwide to define toxic mechanisms, particularly toxicokinetics and bioavailability. This study compares the toxicokinetics of AA and its epoxide metabolite, glycidamide (GA), in serum and tissues of male and female F344 rats following acute exposure by intravenous, gavage, and dietary routes at 0.1 mg/kg AA or intravenous and gavage routes with an equimolar amount of GA. AA was rapidly absorbed after oral dosing, was widely distributed to tissues, was efficiently converted to GA, and produced increased levels of GA-DNA adducts in liver. GA was also rapidly absorbed, widely distributed to tissues, and produced increased liver DNA adduct levels. AA bioavailability after aqueous gavage was 60–98% and from the diet was 32–44%; however, first-pass metabolism or other kinetic change resulted in much higher internal exposures to GA (2- to 7-fold) when compared to the intravenous route. A similar effect on metabolism to GA following oral administration was previously observed under an identical exposure paradigm in mice. Furthermore, DNA adduct formation in rat liver showed the same proportionality with the respective GA AUC value as did mice in the previous study. These findings suggest that as the AA content in food is reduced, species-differences in GA formation and subsequent DNA adduct formation may be minimized. These findings provide additional information needed to assess genotoxic risks from the low levels of AA that are pervasive in the food supply.