Acquaintance Assault Research Articles

‘Real rape’ and the coverage of sexual violence in Dutch newspapers, 1880 to 1930

ABSTRACT Feminist criminologists have used the concept of ‘real rape’ – the understanding of rape as a violent act by a stranger – to explain the low prosecution of acquaintance rape in contemporary society. It is argued that the media perpetuates this understanding of rape by focusing on violent assaults by strangers. Systematic analyses of such distortions in press coverage in earlier periods are, however, lacking. This article considers the Netherlands in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, an interesting case because Dutch law explicitly criminalised certain forms of acquaintance assault. The article aims to determine and explain newspaper representations of the relationship between the perpetrator and victim in the coverage of sexual assault. The analysis is based on a dataset of all items on the sexual assault of women and girls in four newspapers and five sample years between 1880 and 1930. The results show that assaults by acquaintances made up only a small proportion of the cases reported in the newspapers. Many of the items match the ‘real rape’ concept. The evidence suggests the journalists were overreporting violent stranger rapes both because such stories were more easily available and because they carried a more appealing message for readers.

Measurement Invariance of the Sexual Assault Script Scale (SASS): An Examination Among Hispanic and Non-Hispanic White College Women.

Rates of sexual victimization have remained steady over several decades, and preventative interventions to reduce men's sexually aggressive behavior have been largely ineffective. As such, research has endeavored to find novel approaches to identify women at increased risk for sexual victimization. Sexual assault scripts, or "cognitive models" that women adhere to that guide their beliefs about sexual assault are posited to influence their victimization risk. Prior studies on sexual assault scripts primarily have been qualitative in nature; however, recent work yielded a 27-item measure of putative risk for sexual victimization called the Sexual Assault Script Scale (SASS). The SASS has four subscales called Stereotypical Assault Scripts, Acquaintance Assault Scripts, Assault Resistance Scripts, and Date/Friend Assault Scripts, which were found in prior work to be internally consistent and associated with putative risk factors for sexual victimization. The focus of the current study was to test the measurement invariance of the SASS among Hispanic and non-Hispanic White college women who were recruited in the prior study. Four hundred sixty-nine (N = 469) Hispanic and 415 non-Hispanic White US undergraduate heterosexual or bisexual women from a Southwestern university in the United States completed the SASS. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) replicated the prior four-factor model with an acceptable fit to the data, and tests of measurement invariance revealed the SASS to be invariant across Hispanic and non-Hispanic White college women, suggesting that the SASS is measuring a similar construct in these groups.

Assessing College Women’s Perception of Putative Risk for Being Sexually Victimized by a Man: Development of the Sexual Assault Script Scale (SASS)

Sexual assault is highly prevalent and a significant public health problem. The responsibility for sexual assault lies solely with the perpetrator, yet interventions to change perpetrators’ behavior are scarce, making research focused on identifying factors that increase risk for sexual victimization a necessary complement to work on sexual aggression. The present study used mixed-method methodology to develop a measure of sexual assault risk called the Sexual Assault Script Scale (SASS). In three separate studies, we surveyed 1031 U.S. undergraduate heterosexual or bisexual women on the extent to which they believed certain contextual and interpersonal features were likely to be present during an assault. Factor analytic models replicated across studies ultimately yielded a 27-item measure with four internally consistent subscales: Stereotypical Assault Scripts, Acquaintance Assault Scripts, Assault Resistance Scripts, and Date/Friend Assault Scripts. Structural regressions revealed significant associations of the subscales with measures of prior sexual victimization, alcohol risk, number of sexual partners, and sociosexuality, providing support for the criterion validity of the measure. The SASS may prove to be a cost effective, easy-to-administer tool for assessing women’s scripts and identifying those women who may be at increased risk for victimization, thus providing opportunities for targeted prevention.

The importance of self-defense training for sexual violence prevention

Women’s self-defense training has been excluded from sexual violence prevention efforts for a variety of reasons, including concerns that it is ineffective, encourages victim blaming, neglects acquaintance assault, and does not target the underlying factors that facilitate sexual violence. In this article, I argue that these critiques are misguided, founded on (1) misunderstandings of self-defense training, (2) stereotypes about gender, and (3) individualistic assumptions about the impact of self-defense. Further, I assert that empowerment-based self-defense training helps to change the root conditions that allow violence against women to flourish. For all these reasons, and because recent research has built a case for its effectiveness, I argue that women’s empowerment-based self-defense training should be part of any sexual violence prevention effort.

Rape Perpetrators on Trial: The Effect of Sexual Assault–Related Schemas on Attributions of Blame

Research has consistently shown that jurors are influenced by multiple schemas in cases of alleged sexual assault, including offense stereotypes and victim stereotypes. These schemas appear to be organized in a hierarchy, as victim stereotypicality seems to matter most in acquaintance assaults (counter-stereotypical offense). However, despite numerous studies demonstrating the impact of defendant stereotypes on juror perceptions of guilt for other crimes, to date, the impact of stereotypes about defendants (perpetrators) in cases involving sexual violence have been overlooked. As such, the current research aimed to build on the existing hierarchical schema model by systematically examining the influence of perpetrator stereotypes. Following pilot work, mock jurors' ( N = 163) read a rape scenario that varied in terms of offense stereotypicality (stereotypical, counter-stereotypical), victim stereotypicality (stereotypical, counter-stereotypical), and perpetrator stereotypicality (stereotypical, counter-stereotypical). Broadly consistent effects of offense stereotypicality and victim stereotypicality were observed across the outcome measures, such that the victim was perceived more positively and the perpetrator more negatively when the victim was described as being stereotypical and when the offense was described as stereotypical. However, contrary to past findings, the effect of victim stereotypicality did not differ as a function of offense stereotypicality. Furthermore, perpetrator stereotypicality did not influence perceptions in the stereotypical offense scenario. These findings suggest that contrary to the assertions of previous research, there is not a series of specific, individual stereotypes that impact attributions of blame, rather, there may be one underlying schema about consent that influences perceptions. These findings have important implications for how we address the effect of juror-held schemas on attributions of blame in cases of sexual assault.

Patterns of Injury and Reported Violence Depending on Relationship to Assailant in Female Swedish Sexual Assault Victims

Earlier studies have explored the differences between known-assailant sexual assaults and stranger assaults and reported the stranger assaults as being more violent. Only a few studies have discriminated between sexual assaults by intimate partners from assaults by other known assailants when comparing with assaults by strangers. In this study, we explored differences in the extent of violence and physical injury in sexual assaults committed by intimate partners compared with assaults by strangers and acquaintances. Medical and forensic records of 690 consecutive women attending a sexual assault center in Stockholm, Sweden were reviewed. The final sample included in the analysis consisted of 503 patients. Our results showed that women sexually assaulted by their intimate partners more frequently reported physical violence (OR = 4.1) than women assaulted by strangers (OR = 2.0) and acquaintances (OR = 1.0). Genital injuries were not found to be related to the victim-assailant relationship in this study. Extragenital injuries showed a tendency toward being more frequently found after intimate partner assaults compared with stranger and acquaintance assaults; however, this was not found to be significant in adjusted analyses. Previous history of sexual assault was more common, and seeking medical care within 72 hr as well as being under the influence of alcohol during the assault was less frequent among intimate partner victims. These results support the conclusion that sexual assaults committed by intimate partners, contradictory to earlier studies, are likely to involve more physical violence and result in injuries just as often as assaults committed by strangers.

Close Is Dead: Determinants of Firearm Injury Lethality in Women

Accurate data regarding intimate partner violence is difficult to obtain, particularly when examining only homicides or trauma registries. This study characterizes firearm violence against women by examining data from both the county coroner and an urban level I trauma center. The Trauma Registry and Coroners database were reviewed for female victims of firearm assault from 1998 to 2006. Data collected included age, race, location of assault (home, public, unknown), mortality, and injuries. Assailants were categorized as intimate partners (IP), acquaintances, strangers, or undetermined. Adjusted odds ratios for effects of assailant and location were calculated using logistic regression analysis, with statistical significance at alpha = 0.05. Of 115 victims identified, 51 (44%) were fatally injured. Forty-two (37%) of assailants were IP. Fatalities occurred in 71% of IP, 50% of acquaintance, and 20% of stranger assaults. Firearm assault by IP was 10 times more lethal than injury by stranger (p < 0.0005). Assaults at home occurred 54% of the time and had 60% mortality. Assault at home was 3.8 times more lethal than assault in public (p < 0.002). Seventy-nine percent of IP assaults, 63% of acquaintance assaults, and 29% of stranger assaults occurred in the home. In 99 victims with documented injuries, head injuries were found in 68% of IP assaults, compared with 33% and 16% of acquaintance and stranger assaults. IP firearm assaults against women may be underrepresented in current databases. These assaults are highly lethal, frequently occur at home, and often involve head injury. These observations may lend to strategies for trauma prevention.

Injury in adult female sexual assault complainants and related factors

Objective This study was undertaken to document physical injuries and ascertain associated variables in female complainants of sexual assault. Study design 164 cases of sexual assault between 2002 and 2006 in Belfast were included. 162 women consented to body examination and 153 to genital examination. Data for the study were obtained from the contemporaneous notes of a forensic doctor who examined the victims. Results Of 164 females, 44% were less than 20 years of age, mean age was 24.2, range 13–74 years; two-thirds reported alcohol consumption prior to assault. Non-genital (body) injury was observed in 61%, genital injury in 39%, both in 20% and 18% had no injury. Body injury was associated with time to examination (OR = 4.0, p < 0.01), alcohol intake prior to assault (OR = 3.33, p < 0.001), assault occurring outdoors (OR = 3.45, p < 0.01), previous sexual intercourse (OR = 3.19, p < 0.01) and genital injury (OR = 2.24, p < 0.05). Genital injury was related to acquaintance assault (OR = 2.33, p < 0.05), time to examination (OR = 3.70, p < 0.05), reported virgin status (OR = 3.03, p < 0.01) and absence of hormonal contraception (OR = 2.04, p < 0.10). Conclusion Almost half the victims of sexual assault were less than 20 years old and injury was detected in over 80%. Time to examination and prior sexual experience were related to genital and body injury. Assault occurring outdoors and alcohol intake were associated with body injury. Genital injury was more frequent in acquaintance assault and victims not using hormonal contraception. Young females drinking alcohol are at a very high risk for sexual assault.

Preventing Sexual Assault Through Engaging College Men

Sexual assault occurs at alarming rates on college campuses, with men committing 99% of these crimes toward women and in some instances toward other men (Rennison, 2002). The number of women who report surviving a completed or attempted sexual assault while in college has hovered around 25% since Mary Koss completed the first well-documented study of college acquaintance assault in 1985 (Fisher, Cullen, & Turner, 2000; Warshaw, 1994). Historically sexual assault prevention has been seen as a “women’s issue,” and programmatic initiatives have focused on teaching women how to “protect” themselves, and largely neglected to engage men as allies in ending sexual violence against women. Prevention consisted of teaching women how to avoid potential perpetrators and by using tactics to escape dangerous situations, measures that are generally ineffective in addressing acquaintance rape, the most common form of sexual assault (Schewe & O’Donohue, 1993). Recently some campus prevention programs have engaged men as allies in addressing sexual violence, recognizing that most men do not perpetuate sexual violence, and given the right skills will intervene in potential sexual assault situations. Although few people intend to cause harm, not acknowledging and addressing the environments that allow sexual violence to occur contributes to the problem of sexual violence. When students do not understand the complex connection between sexual violence and sexism, a rape-prone culture is perpetuated in unintentional ways, including inappropriate behaviors, traditions, and rituals that maintain some men’s power over women (Davis & Liddell, 2002). Sexual assault is “a learned behavior acquired through routine social and environmental interaction . . . and an extreme form of the traditionally socialized ways that men and women act in the context of sexual relations” (Davis & Liddell, 2002, p. 36). Researchers have found positive correlations between rape-supportive attitudes and behaviors including sexual aggression, history of sexual aggression, and likelihood of future sexual aggression (Lonsway & Fitzgerald, 1994; Truman, Toaker, & Fischer, 1996). Additionally, belief in traditional gender roles positively correlates with greater acceptance of rape myths, making obvious the link between traditional gender roles and sexual assault (Davis & Liddell, 2002; Truman et al., 1996).

The Factors Affecting Sexual Assaults Committed by Strangers and Acquaintances

Research on the causes of sexual assault typically analyzes rape committed by acquaintances and strangers together, despite the fact that the characteristics of the assault in these two circumstances are very different. Thus, this work examines whether the causes of each type of sexual assault--stranger and acquaintance rape--differ. The results of the analyses reveal that variables that describe a culture of gender equality, prior child abuse, and prior sexual assaults are associated with acquaintance assaults. In contrast, a culture of "hypermasculinity" is associated with stranger rape. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Sexual Violence in Rural Areas

While some research has demonstrated the problems associated with sexual assault in urban areas, rural areas, however, have not been studied extensively. The studies on sexual assault in rural areas are discussed and some common concerns are identified. These include stranger versus acquaintance assault, hesitance to report assaults, blaming attitudes, and the need for more and faster services. The need for further research covering risk factors and treatment of sequelae is discussed.

Substance Use and Sexual Assault

The charts of 234 consecutive sexual assault victims age 12 years or greater were reviewed. Substance use by victims and assailants is prevalent. Victims reported substance use immediately preassault in 51 % of cases, and substance use by their assailants in 44%. Victim substance use was associated with a trend toward impaired memory for key elements of the assault. Victim knowledge of assailant substance use was associated with acquaintance assaults. Adult and adolescent substance use rates were not significantly different. Adolescents had a higher rate of acquaintance assaults and nongenital injury. Adults had increased rates of memory impairment and weapon involvement.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Among College Student Victims of Acquaintance Assault

Summary Post-traumatic stress disorder symptomatology was evaluated among 316 college women who reported coercive sexual experiences. History of victimization, attributions of blame, and current symptoms were assessed. Acquaintance assault victims reported significantly higher levels of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptoms than non-victims, and one-third exceeded criteria for clinical levels of distress. Situational variables, including the type of assault, were not associated with PTSD status or symptoms. Cognitive appraisals, however,'were significantly associated with PTSD symptomatology. Attributions of blame were all associated with PTSD status, with characterological self-blame also being associated with level of current symptomatology. The results document the negative psychological consequences of acquaintance assaults among college students and help to focus the efforts of treatment programs for acquaintance assault victims. In addition, the results highlight the importance of cognitive...

Rape — A Comparison of Stranger and Acquaintance Assaults

One of the variables that influences victim trauma in rape attacks is the relationship between assailant and victim (Ellis, 1981). Rapes by strangers have been shown to involve more violence and trauma (Katz and Mazur, 1979). Rapes by acquaintances may involve a betrayal of trust. The study compares 21 rape attacks where the assailant was known to the victim with 30 attacks where the assailant was a stranger. Three main elements of each assault are described: the contextual nature of the rape encounter, the assault characteristics (force, injuries, nature of sexual activity) and the post-rape behaviour. Significant differences were found between the two groups in each of these respects. Contact between rapist and victim took place in a social setting immediately prior to the assault in significantly more of the acquaintance rapes. Significantly more of the stranger rapes involved the display of a weapon. Coercive reciprocation of sexual activity occurred in proportionately more of stranger rapes. The role of verbal aggression was more prominent in acquaintance rapes. Significantly more of the acquaintance rapists (95% as opposed to 17%) interacted with the victim after the overtly sexual part of the attack. Two types of behaviour were displayed in almost equal proportions. Conciliatory/non-threatening behaviour consistent with a distorted affirmation of a person-orientated relationship with the victim was displayed by 43% of these assailants; 48% displayed threatening behaviour. We believe that stranger and acquaintance rapes can be clearly differentiated in terms of the behavioural dimensions of the assault. An understanding of such differences has implications for professionals involved in the assessment and treatment of sexual offenders and their victims.

Risk Factors, Self‐Attributions, and Adjustment Problems Among Victims of Sexual Coercion1

College women (N= 125) were surveyed about their experiences with sexual coercion. Forty‐two percent of the sample reported one or more coercive incidents involving completed intercourse (26%) or attempted intercourse (16%). Only 6% of these incidents were reported to police or campus authorities. Of the victims, 92% knew their assailants, at least casually. A combination of demographic, sexual history, and personality characteristics predicted 21 % of the variance in experience with sexual coercion. The variables most highly associated with reported victimization were frequency of sexual activity and religiosity; women who were more sexually active and who attended religious services less often were more likely to report experiencing sexual coercion than were women who were less sexually active and who attended religious services more often. A combination of situational and attitudinal variables predicted 52% of the variance in victim attributions. The variables most highly correlated with attributions were degree of victim assertiveness and the type of force used by the assailant; less assertive women and women who had been coerced by the use of economic or psychological force made relatively more internal attributions about the coercion incidents they had been involved in than did women who were more assertive and women who had been coerced by means of physical force. Finally, a combination of situational and attitudinal variables predicted 34% of the variance in victim‐reported adjustment problems following the coercion incident. The use of economic or psychological force, greater physical injury, and relative acceptance of interpersonal violence were associated with more severe adjustment problems, whereas the use of physical force, less physical injury, and relative rejection of interpersonal violence were associated with less severe adjustment problems. The implications of these results for the reduction of acquaintance assault and for the counseling of victims are discussed.