Acknowledgement Mechanism Research Articles

Enhanced throughput message streaming methods for DAQ systems of physics experiments

In nuclear and particle experiments, to achieve a real-time software-based data acquisition (DAQ) system, a message streaming platform is adopted as a solution for real-time data streaming transmission, facilitating a decoupled and scalable architecture. As increasing data rate in recent experiments demands higher and higher throughput, existing message streaming platforms lack of high single-node throughput, guarantees of reliability, and sequentiality for high-throughput transmission applications. This paper introduces enhanced throughput message streaming methods for DAQ systems, named DAQMQ. DAQMQ utilizes in-memory storage to store messages during transmission, offering high throughput performance and configurable message retention capability. Reliability in high-throughput transmission is strictly guaranteed by employing a two-phased acknowledgment mechanism. By fast reorganizing message streams in real-time, DAQMQ achieves high-throughput non-blocking sequential transmission. Evaluations conducted on ordinary PCs with 10-Gigabit network connections show that DAQMQ achieves a stable single-node throughput of 9.0 Gbit/s even when handling up to 1024 topics. Furthermore, DAQMQ achieves sequential transmission throughput close to that of non-sequential transmission. Tests with a broker or consumer breakdown during high-throughput transmission demonstrate DAQMQ's reliability and asynchronous transmission ability.

Whisper-Steg: Unveil the Hidden

Whisper-Steg represents a ground- breaking project at the intersection of secure messaging and advanced information concealment techniques. This innovative chat application transcends traditional boundaries by seamlessly integrating the art of steganography, offering users a novel and secure platform for communication. The project not only facilitates text and image sharing but introduces an ingenious Image Steganography feature, allowing users to embed confidential information within images. Incorporating an acknowledgment mechanism akin to popular messaging applications like WhatsApp, Whisper- Steg prioritizes the reliability of communication. This feature ensures that users receive confirmation of message delivery, enhancing the overall user experience. The project dynamically generates cover images based on the size of hidden messages, employing AI algorithms to optimize concealment. This not only enhances the security of the stenographic process but also underscores the project's commitment to leveraging cutting-edge technologies for user benefit. In an era where privacy concerns are paramount, Whisper-Steg embraces steganography and AI-driven solutions and stands as a testament to technological innovation, reshaping the landscape of secure digital communication. Key Words: Whisper-Steg, Steganography, chat application

PPFLHE: A privacy-preserving federated learning scheme with homomorphic encryption for healthcare data

Healthcare data are characterized by explosive growth and value, which is the private data of patients, and its characteristics and storage environment have brought significant issues of data privacy and security. People are reluctant to share their data for privacy concerns during machine learning. To balance this contradiction, Federated Learning was proposed as a solution to train on private data without sharing it. However, many studies show that there is still the possibility of privacy leakage during the training process of federated learning. In light of this, we propose a privacy-preserving federated learning scheme with homomorphic encryption(PPFLHE). Specifically, on the client side, homomorphic encryption technology is used to encrypt the training model shared by users to ensure its security and privacy. In addition, to prevent internal attacks, Access Control (AC) technology is used to confirm the user’s identity and judge whether it is trusted; on the server side, the Acknowledgment (ACK) mechanism is designed to remove the dropped or unresponsive users temporarily, which reduces the waiting delay and communication overhead, and solves the problem of user’s exiting during training. Theoretical analysis and experimental results show that the proposed scheme achieves high data utility and classification accuracy (81.53%), and low communication delay while achieving privacy preserving, compared to state-of-the-art methods.

An Improved DTN Scheme for Large-Scale LEO Satellite Networks

A large-scale low Earth orbit (LEO) satellite network has the characteristics of a complex link environment, a large number of satellites, and the limited resources of a single satellite. Applying traditional routing algorithms has disadvantages such as high overhead, high end-to-end latency, and low message delivery rate. This paper proposes an improved delay tolerant (DTN) scheme for large-scale LEO satellite networks (LIDTN) to improve transmission efficiency and reduce the resource overhead and end-to-end latency of large-scale satellite networks. This scheme improves the network performance in three aspects: next hop selection, congestion control mechanism, and acknowledgment mechanism. For the next hop selection, we propose an equivalent distance and priori knowledge-based forwarding strategy (EPFS), which has the advantages of low overhead, loop avoidance, and fast convergence. For congestion control, we put forward an emergency function-based bundle drop algorithm (EBDA). For acknowledging, we propose the virtual acknowledgment algorithm (VAA) by combining the characteristics of many path hops and high link disruption rates in large-scale constellations. Finally, we simulate and verify the LIDTN scheme on the OneWeb constellation. The results show that the LIDTN scheme is suitable for large-scale constellations, the EPFS algorithm can reduce the network overhead during data transmission, EBDA can reduce the bundle drop rate, and VAA can reduce the end-to-end latency. LIDTN provides a new solution for large-scale constellation communication.

Event‐triggered H∞ control for switched interval type‐2 fuzzy systems under denial‐of‐service

AbstractThis article focuses on the control problem for event‐triggered switched interval type‐2 (IT2) fuzzy systems under denial‐of‐service (DoS) attacks. For a switched IT2 fuzzy system subject to DoS attacks, we introduce an acknowledgment (ACK) mechanism to detect DoS attacks. With the help of the ACK detection scheme, we take the initiative to zero the input signal being attacked. In this way, when the system is being attacked, we need not consider issues of controller premise variables not being updated and the controller mode unmatched with the plant mode. Then, an event‐triggering scheme resilient to DoS is presented to reduce the bandwidth pressure of the network. Moreover, we design a sampled‐based switching law to not only achieve the stability of switched systems but also exclude the Zeno behavior of switchings. Sufficient conditions are proposed to guarantee the stability with the performance of switched IT2 fuzzy systems under DoS. Finally, we give two examples to testify the effectiveness of our results.

Acknowledgment Mechanisms for Reliable File Transfer Over Highly Asymmetric Deep-Space Channels

Deep-space network channels are characterized “in part” by asymmetric channel rates. The effect of the asymmetric channel rates is that the slow acknowledgement (ACK) channel cannot effectively support transmission of the ACK segments generated at the data receiver. Increment of data block size and extension of the retransmission timeout (RTO) timer are widely used transmission mechanisms for eliminating the effect of highly channel-rate asymmetry. The aggregate custody signal (ACS) is recently proposed to resolve the effect of asymmetric channel rates in deep-space networks. In this article, these three acknowledgment mechanisms are studied, with a focus on a comparison of their effectiveness evaluation over highly asymmetric deep-space network channels accompanied by data loss. The study is conducted through realistic file delivery via an experimental testbed infrastructure. It is found that the ACS mechanism shows significant performance advantages over other two mechanisms for both the “normalized” goodput and total data amount in successful file delivery. In particular, the ACS mechanism makes it a better choice to operate with small data bundles without increasing the RTO timer length.

Accelerating Data Transfer in Dataflow Architectures Through a Look-Ahead Acknowledgment Mechanism

Accelerating Data Transfer in Dataflow Architectures Through a Look-Ahead Acknowledgment Mechanism

A Probabilistic Spray-and-Wait Routing Algorithm Based on Node Interest Preference in Delay Tolerant Networks

How to select proper relay nodes to ensure the successful delivery of messages is still a hot topic in delay tolerant networks (DTN). In this paper, we propose a probabilistic Spray-and-Wait routing algorithm based on node interest preference (called NIP-PSW). Firstly, considering the influence of the social attributes of nodes, we define a metric called node interest preference (NIP) to measure the probability of nodes becoming friends. Secondly, in view of the influence of node quality and connection time between nodes on message forwarding, we define the delivery probability (DP). Finally, according to the historical information of nodes, the node interest similarity (NIS) is proposed. In spray phase, NIP and DP are used to select the relay node and allocate the number of message copies adaptively. In wait phase, it is judged whether to forward the message to the encountering nodes again according to the NIS and the DP. In addition, the concept of message storage value (MSV) and the acknowledgment (ACK) mechanism are introduced to manage the buffer of nodes. The simulation results show that the NIP-PSW not only can significantly improve the delivery rate and reduce the average delay but also shows good performance in network overhead and average number of hops.

A Routing Delay Predication Based on Packet Loss and Explicit Delay Acknowledgement for Congestion Control in MANET

In Mobile Ad hoc Networks congestion control and prevention are demanding because of network node mobility and dynamic topology. Congestion occurs primarily due to the large traffic volume in the case of data flow because the rate of inflow of data traffic is higher than the rate of data packets on the node. This alteration in sending rate results in routing delays and low throughput. The Rate control is a significant concern in streaming applications, especially in wireless networks. The TCP friendly rate control method is extensively recognized as a rate control mechanism for wired networks, which is effective in minimizing packet loss (PL) in the event of congestion. In this paper, we propose a routing delay prediction based on PL and Explicit Delay Acknowledgement (EDA) mechanism for data rate and congestion control in MANET to control data rate to minimize the loss of packets and improve the throughput. The experiment is performed over a reactive routing protocol to reduce the packet loss, jitter, and improvisation of throughput.

Group acknowledgement mechanism for beacon-enabled wireless sensor networks

Wireless sensor networks are network of a large number of sensor nodes used for remote applications. To the expressive growth in remote sensor networks, medium access control (MAC) works faster in wireless sensor networks. The MAC protocol has to be appropriately designed to ensure the proper operation of the sensor nodes in WSNs. This paper provides energy saving by proposing group acknowledgement MAC (GACK-MAC) for an aggregated data frame transmitted to a single destination, and reducing the overhead in IEEE 802.15.4 beacon enabled wireless sensor networks. In our proposed scheme, type of acknowledgement of each sensor node is decided by the coordinator based on traffic load of the network or number of packets present in the sensor node. We performed this by adopting the star and peer-to-peer tree topologies with a coordinator having coordination with all other member nodes. Simulations are conducted, and compared with the analytical models constructed to measure the throughput, and delay metrics. Moreover, our method enhances the battery lifetime by 35% on average, throughput of 42% at maximum, and decrease the delay by 33% for each packet in network of star topology and twice the above mentioned values for battery lifetime, throughput and reduces the delay by 49% in P2P topology of wireless sensor networks.

Joint Link Rate Selection and Adaptive Forward Error Correction for High-Rate Wireless Multicast

Multicast communication over wireless networks has many potential applications, such as real-time audiovisual content distribution or digital signage systems with multiple remote terminals. However, today’s common 802.11 networks cannot fully support such applications at the link layer due to the technical challenges in achieving both high transmission rate and high reliability for multicast data transfers. Those challenges primarily emerge from the inapplicability of immediate acknowledgment mechanisms of unicast transmissions to the multicast case and the need for finding a common transmission rate for all receivers with diverse channel conditions. The research literature in this domain mainly addresses the problem at the higher layers of the protocol stack. In this article, we present a novel approach that combines wireless link rate selection with an adaptive packet-level Forward Error Correction (FEC) mechanism in order to achieve high-rate and highly reliable multicast in 802.11 wireless networks. The integration of FEC into the 802.11 MAC layer allows direct interaction between the transmission rate and the coding scheme. As a result, potential packet losses caused by higher link rates can be compensated by the adjustable redundancy provided by FEC. In combination with an aggregated receiver feedback mechanism, this yields improved transmission efficiency and reliability for wireless multicast. We investigate this approach in a simulation environment under a realistic wireless channel model in various application scenarios with up to 50 receivers. The results represent significant performance improvements, in terms of throughput, channel utilization, and packet loss, over the state-of-the-art methods for reliable wireless multicast.

Revisiting Acknowledgment Mechanism for Transport Control: Modeling, Analysis, and Implementation

The shared nature of the wireless medium induces contention between data transport and backward signaling, such as acknowledgment. The current way of TCP acknowledgment induces control overhead which is counter-productive for TCP performance especially in wireless local area network (WLAN) scenarios. In this paper, we present a new acknowledgment called TACK (“Tame ACK”), as well as its TCP implementation TCP-TACK. TACK seeks to minimize ACK frequency, which is exactly what is required by transport. TCP-TACK works on top of commodity WLAN, delivering high wireless transport goodput with minimal control overhead in the form of ACKs, without any hardware modification. Evaluation results show that TCP-TACK achieves significant advantages over legacy TCP in WLAN scenarios due to less contention between data packets and ACKs. Specifically, TCP-TACK reduces over 90% of ACKs and also obtains an improvement of up to 28% on goodput. A TACK-based protocol is a good replacement of the legacy TCP to compensate for scenarios where the acknowledgment overhead is non-negligible.

An Energy-Efficient and Reliable Opportunistic Routing for Wireless Sensor Networks

Introduction: Routing protocols in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) are of major concern because of the important factors like energy efficiency and reliability. Opportunistic Routing (OR) is the simplest and reliable routing technique for ad-hoc networks and WSN. The OR protocol guarantees data delivery in the network. As WSN need energy-efficient routing, therefore, energy- efficient OR protocols gained popularity in the last three years. Objectives: Opportunistic routing improves the performance of the network by utilizing the broadcasting abilities of wireless channels. In this paper, a new energy-efficient and reliable routing protocol has been proposed that is based on the opportunistic routing technique. Methods: The proposed protocol is based on the energy-efficient routing metric. The proposed OR protocol prioritizes among the candidate forwarders on the basis of energy-efficient routing metric and this will lead to the achievement of improved network lifetime. Results: The end-to-end delay is reduced because of the selection of candidate forwarders from the neighbor list of each node. The proposed protocol uses selective acknowledgment mechanisms. The simulation results of the proposed protocol depict the improved performance as compared to other recent OR protocols. Conclusion: The proposed protocol can directly be used with existing WSN applications. Further improvements can be made by utilizing more parameters like distance and the quality of transmission.

IoTorch: Reliable LED-to-Camera Communication Against Inter-Frame Gaps and Frame Drops

LED-to-camera communication for smartphones promises to enable low-cost, small-size, and intuitive data access to Internet-of-things (IoT) devices. However, for fast and reliable communication under the rolling shutter effect, the packet losses caused by inter-frame gaps and frame drops must be dealt with. In this paper, we introduce LED-to-camera communication between a commercial smartphone and an IoT device with LED flashlight, where the user can intuitively acquire the desired data transmitted from the IoT device to the smartphone. Specifically, we present IoTorch, a fast and reliable LED-to-camera communication that efficiently prevents the packet losses. IoTorch consists of two core mechanisms: 1) a minimum-repetition one-way reliable transmission focusing on the periodicity of inter-frame gaps and 2) an acknowledgement mechanism to overcome frame drops by using a smartphone's built-in flash focusing on its delay characteristics. Additionally, we propose an optimization method to increase the throughput up to 2.92 kbps (i.e., 2.43 times faster than that of the state-of-the-art method that overcomes the inter-frame gaps). Furthermore, we realize a remote wake-up function by using the smartphone's flash as the data transmission trigger. To demonstrate the benefit of IoTorch, we present a sensor data viewer using Arduino and a smartphone console system on TelosB.

A Collaborative Reservation Mechanism of Multiple Parking Lots Based on Dynamic Vehicle Path Planning

With the development of wireless communication and artificial intelligence technology, online parking reservation system can effectively save drivers’ searching time for vacant spaces. However, in the environment with multiple candidate parking lots around the destination, how to coordinate and maximize parking space resources to reduce the travel time is still a practical issue for urban drivers. In order to solve this problem, a collaborative reservation mechanism based on dynamic vehicle path planning is proposed in this paper. By the aid of the dedicated backbone network with a clear division of work responsibilities, the information of traffic and parking lots is collected in real time, based on which the travel time prediction and empty spaces evaluation are executed separately, and then the optimal decision of path planning and parking lot selection can be made and adjusted dynamically by a step-by-step acknowledgement mechanism. The simulation results show that, based on collaborative working and overall planning, our proposed reservation mechanism can effectively raise the utilization rate of the parking lots resources and significantly reduce the travel time for drivers under different traffic environments. Compared to current mechanisms, the collaborative parking reservation mechanism reveals higher feasibility and applicability. It can assist in design and operation of urban traffic management and space resource utilization.

Between Control and Empowerment: Local Government and Acknowledgement of Adat Villages in Indonesia

The local government’s acknowledgment of adat (customary) communities and adat villages, as regulated in the Village Law 6/2014 , appear to signal an increasing recognition of adat law. However, the current acknowledgment practices and adat village formalizations have become areas of legal contestation between adat communities and state-national and local governments. Despite the resurgence of formal legal pluralism, those acknowledgment and accommodation mechanisms are double-edged. They involve control and empowerment as emphasized in Hellman’s framework applied to analyze the dilemma in a plural society regarding cultural politics. On the one hand, the acknowledgment and accommodation mechanisms conducted through an official process necessitate the fulfillment of a list of requirements set by the government (controlled). Thus, there is a possible drawback for an asymmetrical position between the formal institution (recognition giver) and the community (recognition recipient). Conversely, the mechanisms are used by adat communities as a means to gain the rights of self-determination. Thus, empowerment is realized, because most local acknowledgment regulations include obligations of protection by the state and local governments. This paper discusses the dynamics of legal pluralism in Indonesia using cases of local acknowledgment and adat village institutionalization in which adat law becomes an element in formalizing the communities’ existence and adat village format. However, a question remains regarding whether the central position of adat law in such a mechanism is merely applied to fulfill the acknowledgment and accommodation requirement or whether it actually strengthens its capacity.

Performance enhancement of IEEE 802.15.4 by employing RTS/CTS and frame concatenation

IEEE 802.15.4 has been widely accepted as the de facto standard for wireless sensor networks (WSNs). However, as in their current solutions for medium access control (MAC) sub-layer protocols, channel efficiency has a margin for improvement, in this study, the authors evaluate the IEEE 802.15.4 MAC sub-layer performance by proposing to use the request-/clear-to-send (RTS/CTS) combined with frame concatenation and block acknowledgement (BACK) mechanism to optimise the channel use. The proposed solutions are studied in a distributed scenario with single-destination and single-rate frame aggregation. The throughput and delay performance is mathematically derived under channel environments without/with transmission errors for both the chirp spread spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum physical layers for the 2.4 GHz Industrial, Scientific and Medical band. Simulation results successfully verify the authors’ proposed analytical model. For more than seven TX (aggregated frames) all the MAC sub-layer protocols employing RTS/CTS with frame concatenation (including sensor BACK MAC) allow for optimising channel use in WSNs, corresponding to 18–74% improvement in the maximum average throughput and minimum average delay, together with 3.3–14.1% decrease in energy consumption.

Transmission Rate Sampling and Selection for Reliable Wireless Multicast

The multicast communication concept offers a scalable and efficient method for many classes of applications; however, its potential remains largely unexploited when it comes to link-layer multicasting in wireless local area networks. The fundamental lacking feature for this is a transmission rate control mechanism that offers higher transmission performance and lower channel utilization, while ensuring the reliability of wireless multicast transmissions. This is much harder to achieve in a scalable manner for multicast when compared with unicast transmissions, which employs explicit acknowledgment mechanisms for rate control. This article introduces EWRiM, a reliable multicast transmission rate control protocol for IEEE 802.11 networks. It adapts the transmission rate sampling concept to multicast through an aggregated receiver feedback scheme and combines it with a sliding window forward error correction (FEC) mechanism for ensuring reliability at the link layer. An inherent novelty of EWRiM is the close interaction of its FEC and transmission rate selection components to address the performance-reliability tradeoff in multicast communications. The performance of EWRiM was tested in three scenarios with intrinsically different traffic patterns; namely, music streaming scenario, large data frame delivery scenario, and an IoT scenario with frequent distribution of small data packets. Evaluation results demonstrate that the proposed approach adapts well to all of these realistic multicast traffic scenarios and provides significant improvements over the legacy multicast- and unicast-based transmissions.

Modeling and Performance Evaluation of the IEEE 802.15.4K CSMA/CA with Priority Channel Access Mechanism Under Fading Channel

The IEEE 802.15.4 is a well-known standard that is widely utilized for Wireless Sensor Networks due to its low rate and energy efficiency. A novel amendment IEEE 802.15.4k is released for the support of the requirements of critical infrastructure monitoring applications. It is intended to deal with priority packet using the Priority Channel Access (PCA). In this paper, we introduce a new IEEE 802.15.4k protocol through embedding Markov chain models, namely a two dimensional Markov chain model for the IEEE 802.15.4k slotted CSMA/CA with PCA backoff access channel mechanism for priority packet transmission and a three dimensional Markov chain model for the IEEE 802.15.4k CSMA/CA access channel mechanism for non priority packet transmission. Our new model takes into account retry limits, acknowledgment mechanisms, transmission errors and saturated traffic. Furthermore, to test and validate the developed protocol a detailed mathematical expressions of the reliability, power consumption, average delay for successful packet transmission and throughput are given in order to compare the performance of both mechanisms. Moreover parameters that significantly influence on the performance of the network such as network size, Bit Error Rate, packet length and probability that the available packet is priority are analyzed to determine their impact. The obtained numerical results show that a higher reliability, lower throughput, negligible power consumption and lower delay are observed in our new protocol due to the priority channel access instead of the ordinary channel access. Additionally, we conduct a comparative study between our new IEEE 802.15.4k CSMA/CA mechanism and the IEEE 802.15.4 CSMA/CA mechanism. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first work modeling the 802.15.4k mechanisms and evaluating theirs performance under fading channel.

Approximate optimal estimation based on Kullback–Leibler divergence for lossy networks without acknowledgement

This study is concerned with the estimation problem for systems with both missing inputs and measurements but without any acknowledgement mechanism. The acknowledgement mechanism is used to provide the estimator with the status information that whether the input is lost or not during the transmission. Affected by the missing input with unknown status information, the probability density function of system state is a Gaussian mixture, of which the number of terms is growing exponentially with time. Two major limitations of state estimation for these systems are (i) the computational inefficiency of the optimal estimation and (ii) the undetermined stability of the approximate optimal estimation. Thus, the aim of this study is to design an estimator such that it can enhance computational efficiency greatly while its stability can be guaranteed simultaneously. Using Kullback–Leiber divergence, an approximate optimal estimator, which is named as the KLD estimator, is developed as an efficient alternative to the optimal one. By establishing a Riccati-like equation subject to both-side packet dropouts, a sufficient and necessary condition is given for the stability of the KLD estimator. It reveals an interesting fact that the proposed approximate optimal estimator has the same stability as the optimal estimator.