Acids In Crude Palm Oil Research Articles

Treatment of acidic crude palm oil using supported benzenesulfonic acid-based deep eutectic solvents in trickle bed reactor

In this study, a deep eutectic solvent (DES) from benzenesulfonic acid and choline chloride (BZSA-ChCl-DES) was prepared for the treatment of high free fatty acids (FFA) in acidic crude palm oil (ACPO). The DES was impregnated into activated carbon (AC-DES) to produce a supported catalyst used in a trickle bed reactor (TBR) for FFA esterification. Under optimal conditions, using 8 g of AC-DES at 60 °C, with ACPO and methanol flow rates of 1 mL/min and 4 mL/min, respectively, the TBR successfully treated 3.5 L of ACPO. A batch reactor, used for comparison, showed that the continuous TBR process required less catalyst per gram of treated oil (2.87 mg catalyst/g) which can enhance the recyclability. Moreover, the continuous process could sustain up to five recycle runs that can treat 1.5 L under optimal conditions (3.5 wt% catalyst dosage, 10:1 M ratio, 60 °C reaction temperature, and 30 min). This approach presents a promising continuous approach for converting high FFA to fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) for biodiesel production.

Direct application of tungstosilicic acid hydrate for the treatment of high free fatty acid in acidic crude palm oil and for biodiesel production

AbstractThis study explored the use of industrial acidic crude palm oil (ACPO) for biodiesel production, facing a significant obstacle due to its high free fatty acid (FFA) content, which complicates the biodiesel production process. Typically, esterification is employed to convert FFAs into fatty acid methyl ester (FAME). Herein, the effectiveness of tungstosilicic acid hydrate (TSAH) as an unsupported heteropoly acid (HPA) catalyst for FFA esterification in ACPO was investigated. The FFA content was reduced from 8.43% to 0.95% under optimum conditions (4 wt% catalyst dosage, a methanol to oil molar ratio of 10:1, 150 min and a temperature of 60°C). Noteworthy, the TSAH catalyst showed stability over 7 cycles. The kinetic analysis revealed that the FFA esterification process closely followed pseudo first‐order kinetics, with an R2 value of 0.94. Furthermore, the biodiesel produced from TSAH‐treated ACPO meets the standard specifications outlined by ASTM D6751 and EN 14214. This research highlights the effectiveness of TSAH in catalyzing FFA esterification without the need for additional support materials or modifications.

Reducing Free Fatty Acids in Crude Palm Oil Using Diethylene Glycol and Zinc(II) Chloride Based Deep Eutectic Solvent

Deep eutectic solvents (DES) were prepared by precise combinations of mol fractions of chemical compounds, resulting in a lowered melting point due to hydrogen bonding. This research aimed to elucidate the physicochemical attributes of DES and its effectiveness in mitigating free fatty acid (FFA) levels in crude palm oil (CPO). Zinc(II) chloride (ZnCl2) served as the hydrogen bond acceptor (HBA) while diethylene glycol (DEG) as the hydrogen bond donor (HBD). Characterization included freezing point, density, viscosity, conductivity, and pH determination. At a ZnCl2 mol fraction of 0.30, the resulting DES exhibited homogeneity with transparent liquid properties, featuring a freezing point below −10 °C, density of 1.42 g/mL, viscosity of 1933.40 cP, conductivity of 66.13 µS/cm, and pH 3.42. FTIR spectra confirmed hydrogen bond interactions between HBA and HBD. Applied to CPO at a 1:1 volumetric ratio (DES:CPO), with 2 h of stirring time at 50 °C, FFA content decreased from 4.11 to 0.86%. This research highlights DES as an environmentally sustainable purification agent, significantly reducing FFA levels in unrefined palm oil.

Development of high free fatty acid crude palm oil as a biodegradable electrical liquid insulator as an alternative to mineral oil-based insulators

Mineral-based oil is now often used for transformer oil. Unfortunately, this kind of oil is harmful and unfriendly to the environment, necessitating the use of vegetable-based products that are both ecologically benign and biodegradable. With its properties, crude palm oil (CPO) might be a possibility for a vegetable-based insulator. Concerning it, the goal of this study was to create a method for converting CPO into an insulator that fulfilled IEC 62770 requirements. The researchers created a CPO-based insulator using degumming, filtration, distillation, and a vacuum drying technique in their work. At vacuum pressures ranging from 15% to 65% vacuum and temperatures ranging from 150 °C to 200 °C, 0.05% phosphoric acid, 5% bleaching earth, and 10% zeolite were used in the degumming process. The best measurement results showed that the values of breakdown voltage and kinematic viscosity of 60 kV and 12.7 cSt, respectively, met the requirements. The moisture content was higher than the required value, while the acid content was still relatively high, namely 1.4 mg KOH/g, thus requiring further treatment. After treatment using 2% KOH, the acidity became 0.01 mg KOH/g, and the moisture content was 176 ppm thus meeting the requirement. The color of the insulator produced was light yellow, bright, and clear. The best treatment parameter combination found was a pressure of 51.9% vacuum with a temperature of 168.7 °C. This research showed that the vacuum pressure had a significant effect on moisture, kinematic viscosity, and acidity, while temperature had a significant effect on breakdown voltage and acidity.

Characteristics of palm oil-based oleogel and its potency as a shortening replacer

This investigation aimed to determine the effect of beeswax (BW) and palm oil concentrations on the characteristics of oleogels which were then compared with a commercial shortening to evaluate their potential to be used as a shortening replacer. The characteristics of palm oil-based oleogel were investigated. Crude palm oil (CPO) and palm oil-based cooking oil (CO) are both rich in palmitic acid (C16:0), oleic acid (C18:1), and linoleic acid (C18:2), but the amount of total saturated fatty acids in CPO is higher than in commercial CO. The binary blends of palm oil (CPO and CO) and beeswax (BW) were used in various concentrations to prepare palm oil-based oleogel. Oleogels containing higher concentrations of BW had a greater oil binding capacity. The addition of BW produced needle-like and spherical crystals. X-ray diffraction analysis revealed a broad peak between 5.6° 2θ and 21.2° 2θ, (4.6 Å), resembling β polymorphism produced by monoacylglycerol aliphatic chains. The solid fat content of the CPO-based oleogel indicated that the product was more heat-resistant and had a profile more similar to shortening than the CO-based oil. As the BW concentration increased, the peak temperature of the sample also increased according to the differential scanning calorimetry analysis. The characteristics of palm oil-based oleogel products were comparable to that of commercial shortening; thus, they can be used as shortening replacers.

Identification of Fatty Acids in Virgin Coconut Oil (VCO), Cocoa Beans, Crude Palm Oil (CPO), and Palm Kernel Beans Using Gas Chromatography

This study aims to identify saturated and unsaturated fatty acids in Crude Palm Oil (CPO), palm kernel seeds, Virgin Coconut Oil (VCO), and cocoa beans using Gas Chromatography (GC-FID). The results of GC-FID analysis showed that VCO contains 90.896% saturated fatty acids, 49.382% CPO, 37.395% palm kernel seeds, and 21.197% cocoa beans. Lauric acid is the highest component in VCO, namely 45.567%, while in CPO the highest component is palmitic acid 43.343%, palm kernel seeds are lauric acid 21.683%, and steric acid 12.120% in cocoa beans. The most unsaturated fatty acids were found in CPO, namely 50.517%, and cocoa beans 11.825%. The unsaturated fatty acids in CPO are oleic acid 39.538% and linoleic acid 10.290%, while in cocoa beans linoleic acid is 11.016%.

Effectiveness of lotion preparations as emollients from pure palm oil and crude palm oil

Palm oil is naturally red due to the high content of beta carotene. Most of the fatty acids in crude palm oil (CPO) are saturated fatty acids, namely palmitic acid (32-59%), while that in pure palm oil (PPO) is linoleic acid (5-11%). Fatty acids function as a moisturizer for the skin. This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of lotion preparations as emollients from pure palm oil and crude palm oil. The concentration of CPO and PPO in the lotions was 5 and 15% using the oil in water (O/W) base. The effectiveness of lotion preparations as emollients was based on descriptive data from 10 panelists whose skin moisture was tested using a skin analyzer. The result showed that lotions prepared with CPO and PPO at concentrations of 5 and 15% exerted a moisture content of more than 50% in the moist skin category.

PEMANFAATAN BERBAGAI TANAMAN BERWARNA SEBAGAI INDIKATOR ASAM-BASA ALAMI UNTUK PENGUJIAN ASAM LEMAK BEBAS PADA CRUDE PALM OIL (CPO)

The study was conducted using a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) consisting of one factor, namely colored plant varieties and indicator concentration consisting of 9 levels, as follows: red spinach 0.15 ml (A), red spinach 0.30 ml (B) . ), 0.45 ml red spinach (C), 0.15 ml purple cabbage (D), 0.30 ml purple cabbage (E), 0.45 ml purple cabbage (F), 0.15 ml secang wood (G ), 0.30 ml sappan wood (H), 0.45 ml sappan wood (I), with two repetitions. Anthocyanins that have been extracted from various types of plants were analyzed first including anthocyanin levels, yield and pH levels. Furthermore, colored plant extracts in alcohol were used as indicators for titration of free fatty acids and comparative analysis was carried out with phenolphthalein (pp) indicator, and visual color changes were observed. This study aims to determine the type of colored plant as a source of anthocyanin which has the highest yield and effective anthocyanin content used as an indicator substitution in the analysis of free fatty acids in Crude Palm Oil (CPO). The results of this study indicate that variations in plant species and indicator concentrations greatly affect anthocyanin and FFA levels. The results of the calculation of Free Fatty Acids with a pp indicator of 0.45 ml of 2.7803% have similarities with using purple cabbage indicator of 0.45 ml of 2.5813%, which is supported by a yield of 34% and anthocyanin content of 0.0472 mg/ ml. Keywords: indicator, colored plants, anthocyanins, free fatty acids (ALB)

PENGARUH APLIKASI ASAP CAIR CANGKANG KELAPA SAWIT PADA TANDAN BUAH SEGAR TERHADAP KUALITAS MUTU CPO (CRUDE PALM OIL)

The results showed that liquid smoke grade 2 of palm oil shells were able to reduce the content of free fatty acids in crude palm oil. The results of the best free fatty acid levels found in the sample of the spray treatment method decreased by 0.38% and the combination decreased by 0.52%, the results obtained were greatly decreased and met the Indonesian National Standard 01-2901-2006. The water content and dirt content produced are still very high, the lowest average water content is obtained by sample B2 with a result of 0.94% and the highest average result is obtained by sample A, which is 0.99% and the result of dirt content with an average result The lowest average was obtained by sample B with a result of 1.38% and the highest average result was obtained by sample B2 with an average result of 4.2%. The results of high water content and dirt content were caused by obtaining crude palm oil by pressing using a manual tool with a cloth so the results obtained did not meet the Indonesian National Standard 01-2901-2006, namely 0.5%. Then the results of DOBI levels (Deterioritation Of Bleachability Index) were obtained with the lowest result of 2.56 from the results of sample B1 and the highest result of 2.25 ppm from the results of B3, if it is associated with the quality of the oil obtained is still not sufficient, it is still not meeting the standards set. determined by PORIM (Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia) which is 2.36 – 3.24. For the level of carotene produced, it is still not enough, namely, the lowest average result is 4.26 ppm from sample B3 and the highest average result is obtained by sample A, which is 488 ppm, so it still does not meet the quality standards of carotene parameters according to Palm Oil Refiners. Association of Malaysia (PORAM) which is 500 - 700 ppm.

Application of acidic ionic liquids for the treatment of acidic low grade palm oil for biodiesel production

Employing low quality feedstocks for biodiesel production can present cost reduction opportunities due to its wide availability and cost effectiveness. However, most low quality feedstocks have high free fatty acid (FFA) content which is not feasible for biodiesel production through direct transesterification due to soap formation. Thus, a pre-treatment step through FFA esterification could reduce the FFA content while simultaneously yielding fatty acid methyl esters (FAME). In this study, the catalytic activity of ten ionic liquids (ILs) were screened for the esterification of FFA in acidic crude palm oil (ACPO). 1‑butyl‑3-methylimidazolium hydrogen sulfate as IL exhibited the highest catalytic activity and was further investigated to determine the optimum operating parameters such as IL dosage, molar ratio, reaction temperature and time. Single factor optimization was employed for the laboratory scale batch esterification reaction. The FFA content was reduced from 10.77% to less than 1% using the following optimum conditions: 4% IL to oil, molar ratio of 10:1 (methanol to oil), 120 min reaction time and 60 °C reaction temperature. Under optimum conditions, the IL can be recycled five times with minimal loss in catalytic activity, highlighting its feasibility as an industrial catalyst for esterification of acidic oils and fats.

Use of Crude Glycerol for Glycerolysis of Free Fatty Acids in Crude Palm Oil

The glycerolysis of crude palm oil (CPO) using potassium hydroxide was studied. This work aimed to evaluate free fatty acid (FFA) conversion in CPO through glycerolysis using crude glycerol. The effect of molar ratios of FFA to crude glycerol, rea

Encapsulated deep eutectic solvent for esterification of free fatty acid

A novel encapsulated deep eutectic solvent (DES) was introduced for biodiesel production via a two-step process. The DES was encapsulated in medical capsules and were used to reduce the free fatty acid (FFA) content of acidic crude palm oil (ACPO) to the minimum acceptable level (< 1%). The DES was synthesized from methyltriphenylphosphonium bromide (MTPB) and p-toluenesulfonic acid (PTSA). The effects pertaining to different operating conditions such as capsule dosage, reaction time, molar ratio, and reaction temperature were optimized. The FFA content of ACPO was reduced from existing 9.61% to less than 1% under optimum operating conditions. This indicated that encapsulated MTPB-DES performed high catalytic activity in FFA esterification reaction and showed considerable activity even after four consecutive recycling runs. The produced biodiesel after acid esterification and alkaline transesterification met the EN14214 international biodiesel standard specifications. To our best knowledge, this is the first study to introduce an acidic catalyst in capsule form. This method presents a new route for the safe storage of new materials to be used for biofuel production. Conductor-like screening model for real solvents (COSMO-RS) representation of the DES using σ-profile and σ-potential graphs indicated that MTPB and PTSA is a compatible combination due to the balanced presence and affinity towards hydrogen bond donor and hydrogen bond acceptor in each constituent.

Synthesis and characterization of biodegradable palm palmitic acid based bioplastic.

This study involves the quantitative analysis of high free fatty acid crude palm oil, the separation of palmitic acid and synthesis of palm palmitic acid-based bioplastic. Synthesis of dimethyl 2-tetradecylmalonate (DMTDM) using methyl palmitate (MP) with sodium hydride (NaH) in the presence of reactive solvent of dimethyl carbonate (DMC) was carried out. The reaction conditions comprise at a mole ratio of MP: DMC: NaH: dimethylformamide (DMF) (0.1:2:0.25:1) at 60 °C for 14 h with 88.3 ± 1.4% yield. FTIR spectra of DMTDM showed the ester carbonyl group at 1740 cm–1. The polymerization of DMTDM with 1,6-hexandiol or 1,12-dodecandiol was carried out using titanium (IV) isopropoxide Ti(OiPr)4 as the catalyst and reaction time of 24 h. The results showed that the poly(dodecyl 2-tetradecylmalonte) (PDTDM) exhibited good thermal properties compared to poly(hexyl 2-tetradecylmalonte) (PHTDM). The increase of the chain length of diol in PDTDM improved the thermal properties of polyester with glass transition, Tg of 13 ºC and melting point of 51 ºC with a molecular weight of 12508 Da and polydispersity index (PDI) of 1.4. In general, the synthetic polyesters can be used as internalplasticizer in bio-based industry.

D-optimal Design Optimization for the Separation of Oleic Acid from Malaysian High Free Fatty Acid Crude Palm Oil Fatty Acids Mixture Using Urea Complex Fractionation

Oleic acid (OA) rich vegetable oils is important for the daily essential dietary oils intake but restrict to particular oil such as olive oil. However OA enrichment to other vegetable oil such as palm oil is always possible. OA can be obtained from cheap resources such as high free fatty acid crude palm oil (HFFA-CPO). OA concentrate from HFFA-CPO fatty acids mixture requires efficient and low cost technique. Urea complex crystallization fractionation is a classic method for fractionating saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids from polyunsaturated fatty acids of many vegetable oils. In this work, the separation and purification of oleic acid (OA) from unsaturated fatty acids mixture fraction (USFA) of HFFA-CPO fatty acids mixture by urea complex fractionation (UCF) was studied. The crystallization reaction conditions of urea inclusion for the non-urea complex fraction (NUCF) were optimized using the response surface methodology (RSM) and the optimal model was developed. The results showed high content of OA (88%) in urea complex fraction (UCF) with 86% yield at optimal conditions of urea-to-USFAs ratio of 4.62 : 1 (w/w), crystallization temperature at –10°C and crystallization time of 24 h. The results have demonstrated that urea complex crystallization fractionation method is a very effective with low cost, stable, obtainable, and comparatively ease to recover of OA from polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) of an oil fatty acids mixture. Pure OA is plausible to be used back for the OA enrichment modification into palm oil for new dietary oil.

Modeling of Glycerolysis Kinetic of Free Fatty Acid in Crude Palm Oil

Kinetics describing chemical glycerolysis reaction of free fatty acid (FFA) in crude palm oil (CPO) with crude glycerol has been investigated. In this study, the kinetics was explored under the conventional procedure using KOH as a homogenous catalyst. The FFA value was measured by the acid-base titration technique. The effect of FFA to glycerol molar ratio and reaction temperature are examined to determine the best condition for FFA reduction. The glycerolysis achieved a maximum FFA reduction from 6.15% to 0.28% under the following conditions: FFA to glycerol molar ratio of 1:4 and 75°C temperature. Under these conditions, the total reaction orders and the reaction rate constant of glycerolysis were determined by establishing six kinetic models. It was found that the highest R2 was 0.89, which was presented from model 5 (α=2, β=0): ^j = kCAOt. The calculated rate constant, activation energy, and pre-exponential factor were’ 6^5608 L mol-1 min−1, 9,432 cal mol-1, and 5.4x106 L mol-1 min−1, respectively.

Periodic UV-C Light Treatment for Reducing the Formation of Free Fatty Acids in Crude Palm Oil During Storage

The formation of free fatty acids (FFA) during long term storage of crude palm oil (CPO) is inevitable, and it can reduce the quality and losing the CPO. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the effect of UV-C light on lipase enzyme deactivation and the effect of periodic UV-C light treatment to reduce the FFA formation in the CPO during storage. The lipase deactivation was evaluated by exposing UV-C light to the lipase solution in the range of 2 to 8 hours at various dose rates of 0.8528, 1.2318 and 1.7238 (mW/cm2) and various periodic exposure times (2. 4 and 6 hours/day) for 7 to 28 storage days. The FFA level was analyzed using the NaOH titration method. The deactivation kinetics followed first-order model with deactivation rate constant in the range of 3.4 10-3 -5.8 10-3 min-1. The half-life was 204.168, 150.586 and 120.024 (min) respectively. The highest value of FFA formation reduction is 85.6% at a dose rate of 1.7238 mW/cm2 and a periodic exposure time of 6 h/day for 28 days storage. Overall, the experimental results show that UV-C treatments were able to deactivate lipase enzymes and reduce the rate of FFA formation in CPO during storage.

Pengujian Association Clasification Dalam Meningkatkan Kualitas Minyak Sawit Sebagai Bahan Dasar Biodisel

The role of oil and gas business in Indonesia has always influenced the source of revenue from the country and energy sources for the national economy. In the 1970 's to the 1990 's and mid-1990 's, it was characterized by the high dependence of the national economy on oil and gas revenues, triggering massive oil and gas-producing. Currently, Indonesia is the largest palm oil producer and exporter in the world. Palm oil is one of the roads to overcome the problem of petroleum in Indonesia. To commercialize plants is still constrained because the availability of low raw material costs very hard to get. The amalgamation of crude palm oil and crude palm sludge is one of the problems of raw materials for renewable energy production. This low-level oil has great potential as a raw material for biodiesel production. To get the maximum quality mixing required a computer method. The method used in this study is analysis study with the Association classification approach by testing Improved Apriori algorithm in mining palm oil dataset. In this research using Data Mining application so that can be used to display the information of quality improvement of palm oil acid with high quality as a biodiesel base where the information is seen from the value of support and Confidence between items. M-Apriori algorithm can not read the continous data, so it must be done transformation first, one of them using the help of discreetization technique. Crude palm oil acid type esteridication which is fatty acid levels &gt; 60 and Abu bunches 51-100 g/mol then the quality of biodiesel with the result of rising methyl Ester increases by as much as 100% (confidence: 1). From data that is calculated manually, no relationship is found Association.

Investigation of Crude Palm Oil as an Alternative Processing Oils in Natural Rubber : Effect of the Unsaturated Fatty Acid

Petroleum based processing oils is the hydrocarbon oils derived from petroleum refining process and commonly used as extender or processing oils to improve the rubber processability. Hydrocarbon oils can be classified as paraffins, aromatics, naphthene and olefins oil based on their molecular structure. The studies on replacement of hydrocarbon oils with natural processing oils had been studied by vast number of researchers due to finite resources and the toxicity of the hydrocarbon oils which enhanced awareness in using natural based oils. These natural processing oils are from vegetable or animal. The vegetable oils contain mainly unsaturated fatty acids. Studies showed that the unsaturated fatty acids affect the cure characteristics and the mechanical properties of the filled vulcanizates as these fatty acids took part during the vulcanization and promote the filler-rubber interaction. In this study, natural rubber (NR) of grade Standard Malaysian Rubber 20 (SMR 20) with the loadings of paraffin oil (PO) and crude palm oil (CPO) between 1 to 5 phr was investigated. Within the loadings of PO and CPO studied, the unsaturated fatty acid in CPOs were reported to results in plasticizing effect which results in lower minimum and maximum torques. Though that the unsaturated fatty acid which took part during the vulcanization prolonged the cure time, it resulted in higher CB-SMR 20 interaction. The tensile properties, tear strength, hardness and abrasion resistance of the CPO recipes were affected by combination of plasticizing effect and better CB-SMR 20 interaction.

Influence of the addition and storage time of crude extract of tea leaves (camellia sinensis l.) toward value of free fatty acid in crude palm oil

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of the crude extract of tea leaves (Camellia sinensis L.) and storage time on the content of free fatty acid in palm oil. The dried tea leaves were macerated and concentrated by rotary evaporator. The extract obtained was added to crude palm oil with various added mass of the extract and various storage times. Phytochemical tests indicated the presence of secondary metabolites including alkaloids, triterpenoids, steroids, phenolics and flavonoids. The ANOVA test showed a decrease in free fatty acid content in crude palm oil with the addition of tea leaves extract. The LSD (Least Significant Difference) test showed the best influence on ALB of palm oil is on the total extract mass of 2 grams and the storage time of 20 days.

A highly efficient separation and physicochemical characteristics of saturated fatty acids from crude palm oil fatty acids mixture using methanol crystallisation method

The objective of the current study was to separate saturated fatty acids (SFAs) from high free fatty acid crude palm oil fatty acid mixture using the methanol crystallisation method. The development of methanol crystallisation method procedure was based on various parameters. The fatty acid composition was determined by using gas chromatography-flame ionisation detector (GC-FID) as Fatty Acid Methyl Esters. The highest percentage of SFAs was more than 89% with the percentage yield of 48.9% under the optimal conditions of the fatty acids-to-methanol ratio of 1:15 (w/v), the crystallisation temperature of −15 °C, and the crystallisation time of 24 hours, respectively. After a double crystallisation, the composition of separated SFAs contains 90% of palmitic acid (C16:0) as a major component and 5.8% of stearic acid (C18:0), respectively. Moreover, almost 4.2% of oleic acid (C18:1) was observed in the saturated solid product. Based on the results, the use of methanol as a crystallisation solvent is recommended because of its high efficiency, low cost, stability, obtainability, and comparative ease of recovery.