Achieve Greenhouse Gas Reduction Research Articles

Powering the Future: An Integrated Framework for Clean Renewable Energy Transition

The transition to renewable energy has been recognized as a crucial step in addressing climate change and achieving greenhouse gas reduction targets, but it can also cause energy sprawl if not planned properly. Clean renewable energy communities (CREC) are emerging globally as an approach for decentralized energy systems and an alternative to traditional centralized energy systems. CREC aim to lower the energy carbon footprint, enhance local energy resilience, and improve the quality of life of residents. Through a comprehensive literature review, this study reviews metrics that can assess the impact of energy transition plans and support decision-making to select technologies that create efficient, reliable, and accessible energy systems. It classifies these metrics into a five-dimensional sustainability approach including environmental, technical, social, economic, and political and institutional dimensions. The paper proposes a conceptual framework to guide decision-makers in recognizing the role of sustainable land development, sustainable energy planning, and resiliency as an integrated approach to energy transition planning. This framework stresses mapping the place-based potential for clean renewable energy at various scales, highlights the importance of resilience in energy planning, and addresses challenges associated with energy source selection, built environment efficiency, and the energy trade. While the framework can serve as a starting point for evaluating energy transition plans, further work is needed to address the limitations of existing metrics and identify additional evaluations for mixed-energy land use that are critical to managing energy sprawl in terms of ecosystem services and other land uses.

Investment Decision for Long-Term Battery Energy Storage System Using Least Squares Monte Carlo

The use of renewable energy sources to achieve carbon neutrality is increasing. However, the uncertainty and volatility of renewable resources are causing problems in power systems. Flexible and low-carbon resources such as Energy Storage Systems (ESSs) are essential for solving the problems of power systems and achieving greenhouse gas reduction goals. However, ESSs are not being installed because of Korea’s fuel-based electricity market. To address this issue, this paper presents a method for determining the optimal investment timing of Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESSs) using the Least Squares Monte Carlo (LSMC) method. A case study is conducted considering the System Marginal Price (SMP) and Capacity Payment (CP), which are electricity rates in Korea. Revenue is calculated through the arbitrage of a 10 MW/40 MWh lithium-ion BESS, and linear programming optimization is performed for ESS scheduling to maximize revenue. The ESS revenue with uncertainty is modeled as a stochastic process using Geometric Brownian Motion (GBM), and the optimal time to invest in an ESS is determined using an LSMC simulation considering investment costs. The proposed method can be used as a decision-making tool for ESS investors to provide information on facility investments in arbitrage situations.

From Biogas to Biomethane: An In-Depth Review of Upgrading Technologies That Enhance Sustainability and Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Renewable energies present an opportunity to enhance energy security, reduce dependence on imports, and lower greenhouse gas emissions. Natural gas, viewed as a transitional fuel from coal to renewables, lacks reliable environmental sustainability and does not contribute to EU energy independence. Recently, biomethane has been gaining attention as an alternative to natural gas. Obtained from purified or “upgraded” biogas, it offers environmental and economic advantages. Several developed technologies, including absorption, adsorption, membrane separation, and cryogenic separation, are commercially available. However, those are energy- and resource-intensive. In this context, this review aims to examine the recent advancements in biogas upgrading, particularly in physical, chemical, and biological pathways. It focuses on CO2 removal and/or conversion to methane, offering an updated overview for future studies. The technologies are classified based on the separation method (by phase addition, by solid agent, by phase creation, and by biological process), and an analysis of each category is conducted. The discussion covers the economic and environmental characteristics, process complexity, and future research prospects in sustainable technologies. This review highlights the potential of biogas upgrading technologies in contributing to sustainable development, increasing energy security, and achieving greenhouse gas reduction goals that are aligned with EU targets.

Reconciling Ireland’s climate ambitions with climate policy and practice: challenges, contradictions and barriers

Often perceived as a green nation, Ireland’s climate action reputation ranges from being regarded as a climate ‘laggard’ to being applauded as one of the first states to introduce supply-side ‘keep it in the ground’ (KIIG) legislation. In line with UNFCCC and IPCC advice, Ireland has committed to reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 51% by 2030 and reaching net zero by 2050. However such ambitions have not yet translated into sufficient transformations required to achieve the goals of a Paris Agreement compliant pathway. Major challenges surround Ireland’s transition to net zero, for example, the country’s fossil fuel dependency means oil and gas (mostly imported) account for around 80% of primary energy while emissions from agriculture, transport and electricity generation are increasing, rather than decreasing. Ireland is failing to meet national and EU GHG reduction targets, has had to buy emissions quotas to comply with legal requirements, and its interim 2030 target is below the EU’s Climate Law ambition. Contradictory policies, especially those influenced by ROI’s neoliberal orientation, undermine climate action and mean Ireland struggles to achieve GHG reductions, despite the state’s climate change legislation and policies. Concentrating on supply-side climate policy, this article examines key issues hampering Ireland’s ability to reconcile its climate ambitious with policy and practice. Adopting a critical political economy analysis, we explore multi-level drivers of climate and energy policies, examining challenges like the war in Ukraine, which prompted the Irish state to re-consider where and how it sources gas and oil, in turn threatening existing KIIG measures. In critically analysing challenges and contradictions, we identify multiple ideological, political and economic factors, in particular, the neoliberal, globalised economic model influencing the State’s current unsustainable, risky and contradictory policy direction. We conclude by articulating specific barriers hampering Ireland’s climate ambitions that must be addressed to enable a just transition to a sustainable future.

LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS AND CLIMATE CHANGE: THE CASE OF MEENANGADI PANCHAYAT IN KERALA

India faces significant vulnerability to the effects of climate change, attributed to its varied geography, substantial population, and reliance on agriculture. The nation encounters numerous climate-related challenges, including more frequent and severe extreme weather events like heatwaves, droughts, floods, and cyclones. Dealing with this intricate matter necessitates a comprehensive and cooperative strategy that extends beyond conventional top-down governance models. Local governments have a vital role in formulating and executing climate change adaptation strategies. They assess local vulnerabilities, identify priority areas, and formulate plans to build resilience and reduce risks. This can involve measures such as infrastructure improvements, land-use planning, water management, and public health initiatives tailored to the specific needs of the community. Local governments often collaborate with stakeholders, including businesses and residents, to achieve greenhouse gas reduction targets. India has pledged to become carbon neutral by the year 2070, and achieving carbon neutrality is a complex and multi-faceted endeavour that requires coordinated efforts across sectors and levels of government. The carbon-neutral Meenangadi in the Wayanad district of Kerala is a perfect example of successful local self-government taking measures to achieve carbon neutrality.

The climate and environmental effects of policies for moving freight transport from road to other modes: The case of Sweden

The objective of this paper is to determine how policy instruments which aim to achieve a modal shift of long-haul freight transport from road to rail or sea affect the direct emissions to air of greenhouse gases, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxides, volatile organic compounds, and particulate matter. The analysis is conducted in two stages. First, a range of forecasts reflecting different assumptions are applied using the Swedish national freight transport model (SAMGODS) to derive a range of possible future developments of emissions levels up to 2030 and 2040. This has involved determining emission factors per tonne-km for each of the SAMGODS model's six road freight vehicle types, eleven freight train variants and 22 ship types. The model outcomes are then compared to those of the base year of 2017. Second, the effects of two hypothetical modal shift policy instruments are analyzed with respect to their potential impact on emissions to air. The effects of these two policy instruments are evaluated for the base-year of 2017 and for the 2030 and 2040 forecasts. The paper also analyzes whether the Swedish climate objective for domestic transport in 2030 can be expected to be fulfilled given different forecasts and policy instruments.Within the context of a predicted large increase in total freight tonne-km (between 31 and 53%), emissions of greenhouse gases are calculated to decrease by 50 to 60% by 2040. This means that the Swedish freight transport sector will not achieve its share of greenhouse gas emissions reductions necessary to attain the national climate objective of a 70% reduction by 2030. Emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) are forecast to reduce by between 60 and 75%, emissions of sulfur dioxides to reduce by between 41 and 50%, emissions of volatile organic compounds to increase by 8 to 30% and emissions of particulate matter (from exhaust and tyre/road wear) are calculated to increase by between 13 and 33%. Using modal shift policy instruments to achieve greenhouse gas reductions is calculated to attain worse results over time, by 2040 it might even be counterproductive.

Dynamic simulation of life cycle environmental benefits of remanufacturing asynchronous motors to permanent magnet synchronous motors

Electric motors, converting electrical energy into mechanical energy, are widely utilized as the primary power source for electromechanical equipment. However, the huge energy consumption of electric motors makes their energy efficiency improvements crucial for achieving greenhouse gas reduction goals. As a result, low-efficiency asynchronous motors are being eliminated, while their high-value recycling has subsequently become a key issue. Remanufacturing offers a promising solution to upgrade low-energy efficiency asynchronous motors to high-energy efficiency permanent magnet synchronous motors, but its environmental benefits are unclear. A novel dynamic assessment model that integrates life cycle assessment and lifetime distribution modeling to evaluate the environmental benefits of motor remanufacturing is established. A manufacturing and four remanufacturing scenarios based on the damage profile of individual motor components are developed. The results demonstrate that motor remanufacturing can significantly reduce carbon emissions by 26.75%–65.13%. The model was also applied to various recycling scenarios and synchronous motor market penetration levels to provide a long-term environmental benefit in the motor industry in China by 2040. Findings suggest that the motor remanufacturing industry can achieve peak carbon reduction in 2035 and 2033 under the medium and high market penetration scenarios, respectively. It's also disclosed that remanufacturing offers considerable material savings (36%–73%), energy savings (28%–63%), and water savings (34%–88%). The environmental benefits of motor remanufacturing industry are quantified for the first time, demonstrating its effectiveness in facilitating a green and low-carbon transition. The dynamic assessment methodology system constructed in this research can provide a theoretical framework and research ideas for the environmental impact assessment of other end-of-life product management.

Placement and nitrogen source effects on N2O emissions for canola production in Manitoba

AbstractThis study examined fertilizer nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions and canola (Brassica napus L.) grain yield for two granular urea sources (conventional and a dual urease and nitrification inhibitor [SuperU]) and three at‐planting placement methods (broadcast‐incorporated, shallow banded, and deep banded) on commercial fields in Manitoba. Nitrogen (N) rates were 100% and 70% of what was recommended based on soil test and target yield, with the 100% treatments having N2O emissions monitored. SuperU fertilizer consistently reduced N2O emissions (area‐, N‐applied‐, and yield‐based) compared to urea. Significant reductions in N2O emissions with SuperU occurred in four of six site‐years and coincided with delayed nitrification. Compared to broadcast‐incorporated, subsurface banding of conventional urea reduced N2O emissions in drier site‐years but increased emissions when rainfall was higher (especially in shallow banded urea). Across all six site‐years, shallow banding of urea resulted in significantly higher emission intensities than all other treatments. Nitrogen placement did not affect the emission reduction benefit of SuperU. N source or placement did not greatly affect canola yield within either 100% or 70% N rates. Fertilizer N recovery efficiency was also not greatly impacted by either N source or placement. The results demonstrate that dual inhibited granular urea fairly consistently reduces N2O emissions in canola production in southern Manitoba, whereas nitrogen placement had variable effects depending on growing season rainfall. However, with little agronomic benefit, the added cost of enhanced efficiency fertilizers must be overcome for widespread adoption and to achieve greenhouse gas reduction targets for the Canadian agriculture sector.

Implications and Challenges of Carbon Pricing

With the global climate crisis looming, the public look forward to the Paris Agreement setting countries on a new path to reduce global warming. Carbon pricing policies are the most cost-effective or "first-best" response to climate-related externalities and are a way to achieve greenhouse gas reductions across countries. This paper first introduces the mechanism and classification of carbon pricing in detail, then reviews the influence of carbon pricing in the field of energy and finance, and finally sorts out the existing challenges of carbon pricing. In energy, carbon pricing will promote the transformation of traditional coal energy to clean energy. In the financial field, the combination of carbon pricing with carbon finance and carbon market will help the implementation of carbon pricing policies. At the same time, carbon pricing faces some challenges in political environment, citizen acceptance, international unified normative system, and other aspects. Although there are still some challenges, carbon pricing plays an indispensable role in climate policy implementation and research and global sustainable development. It is foreseeable that carbon pricing has broad prospects in measures to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and combat climate change.

Overbuilding transmission: A case study and policy analysis of the Indian power sector

Policies to substantially increase the amount of renewable energy produced and electrify much of the transportation and industrial sectors to achieve greenhouse gas reduction goals envision an extensive expansion of the transmission system. One set of proposals calls for anticipatory transmission planning, namely, building transmission to regions with the potential to develop renewable energy resources before their actual development. This paper presents a case study of transmission expansion planning in India. Our study finds that it is possible to overbuild the transmission system even in a country that is rapidly developing thermal and renewable resources and has sizeable electricity load growth. Anticipatory transmission planning, high guaranteed returns and weak governance can result in transmission overbuilding. This cautionary finding motivates several recommended public policy reforms to reduce future overbuilds, while supporting economically efficient and environmentally sound transmission development.

Application of CO2 Geological Storage Technology in Global Greenhouse Gas Reduction

Greenhouse gas emission has serious impacts on human societies, ecosystems and economies as a result of global climate change. In response to this challenge, the global community has set greenhouse gas reduction targets aimed at reducing emissions of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2). In terms of emission reduction technology, CO2 geological storage technology is considered to be an important and potential solution. The wide application of CO2 geological storage technology can help achieve greenhouse gas reduction targets and slow down the greenhouse effect of the earth. The research will explore the role of CO2 geological storage technologies for global greenhouse gas emission reduction targets. Through extensive collection of relevant information on CO2 geological storage technology around the world, comprehensive research and analysis of the principle, application cases, limiting challenges and environmental impact of this technology, to evaluate the prospects and prospects of CO2 geological storage technology in achieving global emission reduction goals challenge. The study found that the geological storage of CO2 can promote the reduction of global greenhouse gas emissions, and its long-term effect will be more obvious, and the advantages will be more obvious with the improvement of technology and the cooperation between international governments.

Life cycle environmental impact assessment of Taean coal power plant with CO2 capture module

To prevent the generation of pollutants and secondary pollutants owing to the adoption of novel technologies or processes including carbon capture and storage (CCS), it is necessary to characterize the environmental impact more precisely based on actual data. This study established an analysis model utilizing life cycle assessment (LCA) data at the secondary data level, based on the actual data of the Taean coal power plant in the Republic of Korea. The collected data were statistically analyzed to verify the changes in environmental impact according to operation factor, and appropriate life cycle inventories were structured to model the Taean coal power plant. From the created life cycle inventories, the modeled Taean coal power plant was firstly evaluated based on its environmental impacts. It was found that the global warming potential could be reduced by 78%, from 1.04 to 0.23 kgCO2/kWh by applying the CO2 capture module to the Taean model. It was therefore confirmed that applying the CO2 capture facility from a point emission source, such as a thermal power plant, is an effective solution to achieve targeted greenhouse gas reduction from the 2050 Low Emission Development strategy. Also, it was found that upon assessing environmental impact for application of the CO2 capture module to the coal power plant, integrating both the time horizon and country characterization factor should be considered. With the help of the precise LCA methodology, it was confirmed that application of air pollutant control and CO2 capture modules are effective solution to achieve greenhouse gas reduction with environmental regulation standards.

페루 청정개발제도(CDM) 사업 분석을 통한 온실가스 감축 비용 추정

There has been a widespread awareness of the need to achieve carbon neutrality by mid-20th century, especially upon the publication of IPCC 1.5℃ Special Report in 2018. In order to cost-effectively achieve greenhouse gas reduction at a global level, the importance of cooperation between countries and the use of the international carbon market are emphasized more than ever. The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under the Kyoto Protocol will be reorganized into a “Sustainable Development Mechanism (SDM)” under the Paris Agreement. As the SDM is expected to inherit much of the CDM system, it is necessary to closely examine the performance and economic aspects of CDM projects in order to maximize the availability of the new international carbon market, SDM under the Paris Agreement. Despite its importance, research on the economic assessment of the emission reduction projects under the CDM has so far been scant. With an aim to establish an analytical basis to assess the economic feasibility of each type of emission reduction project and to draw implications for the national strategy for implementing the reduction projects abroad, this study estimated mitigation cost ($/tCO₂) of 27 CDM projects in Peru. The reservation price of Certified Emission Reduction (CER) unit that ensures minimum economic feasibility of the project has been estimated and analyzed by project type. A comparison of reduction potential and cost of mitigation by CDM project type in Peru shows that methane recovery, landfill gas, wind power, and solar power generation are the most cost-effective types in Peru. For many countries including South Korea, engaging in more active reduction activities through overseas reduction projects may be an important means of achieving the national reduction goal and contributing to global efforts to abate greenhouse gas emissions. Thus, it is important for South Korea to put efforts to improve its understanding of the reduction potential, investment opportunities and cost effectiveness of mitigation projects in Peru as well as Chile, Vietnam, Myanmar and Sri Lanka designated as target bilateral cooperation countries.

Environmental Assessment of University Campuses: The Case of the University of Navarra in Pamplona (Spain)

Current European environmental sustainability standards call for achieving a reduction in energy consumption and CO2 emissions for a horizon set in the year 2050. It has been verified that buildings and cities have a higher incidence in this regard. It is necessary to have tools for initial assessment that can quickly analyse whether the improvement scenarios put forward by different organisations and governments will be able to meet the goals set at European level. Universities are an important factor for the intended change and therefore offer an excellent environment for testing such tools. A case study focusing on a university in northern Spain is presented, through an evaluation tool using 3D models including life-cycle assessment. Different reform scenarios are evaluated for two key years, 2030 and 2050. The novelty lies in considering, not only the impact of the operational phase but also the impact of the different stages of the life cycle and processes, obtaining an impact value closer to reality. The results indicate that, even with major retrofitting and adaptation efforts, the European targets are difficult to achieve by 2050. Moreover, solutions such as biomass help to achieve greenhouse gas reductions but not to improve energy efficiency.

Low-carbon technology development under multiple adoption risks

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions is now an important global issue. The promotion and application of low-carbon technologies is one important method of achieving greenhouse gas reduction. The core problem is identifying the types of technology to introduce, when and to what degree, while satisfying the related sustainable goals. This study proposes a frame of development path design for low-carbon technology. Contrary to existing methods, our innovation lies in the introduction of multiple uncertainties in the technology adoption process. We consider four main types of technical risks, and provide corresponding quantitative descriptions. Our framework describes a class of technology development path problems as dynamic programming problems with different random constraints. Using existing numerical simulation methods, we obtain solutions of the original problem at a certain level of confidence, and discuss important issues, such as the learned robust features, and the relevant sensitivity of the model in a given solution space. Related results confirm the effectiveness of our model. Notably, our analysis framework can be generalized to solve similar problems, especially, in the characterization of technical risks.

The Role of the Key Components of Renewable Energy (Combustible Renewables and Waste) in the Context of CO2 Emissions and Economic Growth of Selected Countries in Europe

In the case of developing countries, it is not clear which crisis management tools will ensure sustainable development in a sustainable and environmentally friendly way, as well as reducing CO2 emissions in addition to ensuring GDP growth. The next analysis discusses the details of this issue. The study explores the connection between per capita GDP, emission of CO2, combustible energy, and waste consumption. The Hausman test ratifies that the regression model with the fixed effect is the proper method for the panel balanced data from 1990 to 2019 in the selected 13 countries of the EU. This study ordered the data into three categories (for 13 selected countries, the top nine EU countries (in GDP), and Visegrad countries (Hungary, Slovakia, Czech Republic and Poland)). The study found a significant positive effect of combustible energy and waste consumption and the negative impact of CO2 emission on GDP per capita. The cointegration test confirms that all three variables are cointegrated. This implies a long-term link among all three variables in the context of all three types of the selected panel. The Granger causality results ensure that there is a two-way cause–effect relation between the variables. The study strongly recommends that developed European Union countries (the top nine EU countries) increase energy production from biomass-based renewable energy and waste to stimulate economic growth. The same strategy was not recommended in the Visegrad countries because of the much lower GDP growth due to the N-shaped Kuznets curve. In these countries, it is advisable to avoid unexpected increases in CO2 emissions from biomass and fossil fuel-burning, to achieve greenhouse gas reductions using other circular, platform-based models instead of simple biomass energy production. Due to the low level of energy efficiency and the lack of application of technological innovation, the energy use of biomass can significantly slow down GDP growth in less developed EU countries (such as the V4 countries).

Pathways toward inclusive low-emission dairy development in Tanzania: Producer heterogeneity and implications for intervention design

ContextReducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the agriculture sector – especially livestock – through low-emission development (LED) has attracted increased global attention. However, producers rarely prioritize emission reduction in their day-to-day practices, resulting in a mismatch between global and national environmental policies and local development interests. This raises the urgency of identifying overlapping solution spaces that would address global and national environmental targets and farmers' production goals. ObjectiveThe objective of this study is to identify pathways for scaling LED that better account for divergent smallholder capabilities, strategies, and interests. MethodsA multivariate cluster analysis was used to evaluate producer heterogeneity. The analysis utilized data from 1176 household surveys in Tanzania. Informed by these results, stakeholder workshops were held to identify how each group is uniquely constrained in the adoption of LED practices and viable paths forward. Results and discussionsOur results reveal six distinct farmer types, distinguishable by their asset base, livestock ownership, cattle breeds, access to market, and income diversity. The six groups presented three levels of LED uptake, high, moderate, and low. Variants of technological packages and market-based interventions, access to better quality inputs, and extension services will be more impactful when correctly matched to producers' asset portfolios, interests, and needs for the high and moderately intensifying producers. However, interventions that address both the knowledge and resource gaps for producers who demonstrate low uptake of LED will be more appropriate. Achieving GHG reduction will be modest from already intensifying groups and the low uptake groups, while moderately intensifying groups present the highest leverage for increased GHG reduction potential. This highlights how taking a food system approach rather than a technological package would be more beneficial especially in targeting groups that are not interested in LED. SignificanceThis study challenges the conceptualization of LED as a simple technological fix. We demonstrate that LED, as currently conceptualized, is not equally accessible or appealing to everyone. Consequently, successful LED uptake is contingent on donor and state ability to match LED strategies, local development priorities, and food systems objectives to develop more targeted needs-driven implementation pathways.

Greenwashed energy transitions: Are US cities accounting for the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy resources in climate action plans?

Across the United States, cities have developed climate action plans (CAPs) to announce and implement climate change mitigation strategies. Seventeen CAPs were selected to determine if and how these plans are accounting for the life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with their energy system transitions through document analysis. Each CAP, along with other relevant documents such as GHG inventories, was studied through an analysis matrix of criteria based on life cycle assessment (LCA) best practices, designed to identify how the methodologies used by cities to quantify GHG emissions reductions strategies compare to the LCA approach that encompasses emissions from cradle to grave. A wide range of methods, strategies, and assumptions were observed in how cities plan to achieve GHG reductions associated with energy use. Fourteen of the seventeen CAPs describe renewably sourced electricity as emitting no GHGs, seemingly failing to account for the life cycle impacts of these resources. Further, several reviewed CAPs have set GHG reduction goals that rely on technology that is not currently viable, and/or monetary offset mechanisms, as opposed to implementing climate change mitigation strategies based on comparing the life cycle impacts of alternatives. The results of this qualitative analysis demonstrate the need for standardizing CAP development methods and suggest that current methods in practice may be underestimating energy sector GHG emissions, thus hindering the efficacy of proposed energy system transitions for climate change mitigation.

Is there a joint lever? Identifying and ranking factors that determine GHG emissions and profitability on dairy farms in Bavaria, Germany

Farms are increasingly expected to contribute to greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation actions to help governments to achieve GHG reduction commitments. In order to identify key mechanisms for GHG mitigation on farms, many studies use mass flow simulation or optimization models. However, by assuming “best practice” and not accounting for “real farm practices”, these models cannot predict variability between farms. In contrast, studies that include variability between farms can identify determinants that are important factors to reduce GHG emissions. From a farmer's perspective, it is often crucial that these mechanisms also increase farm profitability. The objectives of this article are (1) to explore factors that jointly affect GHG emissions and profitability of dairy farms and, (2) to assess if these factors cause synergies or trade-offs to simultaneously reduce GHG emissions and increase profitability. To assess variability between farms, we utilize detailed site- or farm-specific input variables for a large number of farms. To this end, we combined a detailed high quality dataset of 92 farms for the year 2013 in Bavaria, Germany. In relation to GHG emissions, we collected emission factors from national and international life cycle analysis databases, and applied national and site-specific GHG emission models. Our global sensitivity analysis identified five factors affecting GHG emissions per kg of fat and protein corrected milk in the following order of relative importance (i.e. proportion of farm variability explained): feed use efficiency (26%), weighted nitrogen balance (23%), site specific nitrogen emission factor (15%), milk yield (13%), and replacement rate (8%). Of these five factors, feed use efficiency and milk yield were also relatively important factors for profitability. However, milk yield is strongly interlinked with beef output, an important by-product of our sample dairy farms, and thus needs special attention when defining effective GHG reduction targets. Site-specific nitrogen emission factors cannot be influenced directly by farmers. This leaves three main determinants for farm variability between farms of GHG emissions i.e. on field nitrogen use efficiency, feed use efficiency and replacement rate. Since feed use efficiency was also identified as an important factor increasing profitability, this could be addressed by advisory services assessing synergies between profitability and GHG emissions. On field nitrogen use efficiency and replacement rate were not identified as an important factor affecting profitability and thus may be addressed by additional incentives for farmers, advisory service, or stricter regulations.

Examining the decreasing share of renewable energy amid growing thermal capacity: The case of South America

Concerns about climate change have required energy policy to be reconsidered around the world. The transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy has the potential to contribute significantly to the goals of the Paris Agreement (2015), particularly in the developing world. The recent evolution of total installed capacity of electricity mix in eight South American countries and the current renewable energy policy is considered. Indications of an energy paradox are seen: the installed share of thermal capacity increases as energy demand grows, decreasing the share of renewable energy despite the government's stated policy and commitment to increasing renewables in electricity generation through incentives and regulations. The share of installed hydro compared to thermal generation declined from 2007 to 2017 in Chile, Peru, Brazil, Argentina and Bolivia. Furthermore, South American countries are unlikely to reach the aforementioned share of renewables in the energy matrix, with the exception of Uruguay. Thus, organic growth of renewables may not be enough in a region with high potential and a long history of low emissions from electricity. It may be necessary for governments to more actively prioritize, regulate, and support inclusive subsidies for both public and private investors in the electricity sector to reduce the risk of climate change and achieve greenhouse gas reduction goals.