Achievement-oriented Psychological Control Research Articles

Maternal child-based worth predicts children’s academic contingent self-worth via perceived maternal achievement-oriented psychological control

This study examined the longitudinal associations among maternal child-based worth, perceived maternal achievement-oriented psychological control, and children’s academic contingent self-worth over a one-year period in 274 Chinese children. Results showed that, after the autoregressive effects were controlled, higher levels of maternal child-based worth longitudinally predicted higher levels of perceived maternal achievement-oriented psychological control. Higher levels of perceived maternal achievement-oriented psychological control at an earlier time point were also linked to higher levels of children’s academic contingent self-worth later. However, earlier levels of children’s academic contingent self-worth did not predict their perceptions of maternal psychological control longitudinally. The findings suggest that parents should be aware that their own contingent self-worth may be transferred from one generation to another through maladaptive parenting practice. They are advised not to over-identify with the wins and losses of their children and to consider whether they may have stepped over the autonomy of children inadvertently.

Maternal achievement-oriented psychological control: Implications for adolescent academic contingent self-esteem and mathematics anxiety

Using random intercept cross-lagged panel analysis, this study examined the longitudinal relations of mathematics anxiety to maternal achievement-oriented psychological control and academic contingent self-esteem in 336 Chinese adolescents from the age of 13 to 17. Results showed that, at the between-person level, adolescents who perceived their mothers as more psychologically controlling in achievement domains over time were also the ones with higher levels of academic contingent self-esteem and mathematics anxiety, compared with other adolescents. Our within-person analyses are in line with the within-person hypotheses that underline self-determination theory: adolescents’ perceptions of maternal achievement-oriented psychological control were linked to mathematics anxiety through academic contingent self-esteem. We also found that the association between maternal achievement-oriented psychological control and mathematics anxiety was bidirectional, which supports the transactional perspective of parental influence. This study contributes to the literature by elucidating potential processes and reciprocal associations involved in parental psychological control, academic contingent self-esteem, and mathematics anxiety.

Validation of the Dependency-Oriented and Achievement-Oriented Psychological Control Scale (DAPCS) in a Spanish-speaking late adolescent sample

El control psicológico parental se refiere a los comportamientos de los padres que interfieren con los pensamientos y sentimientos del niño y se caracterizan por el uso excesivo de técnicas de manipulación, como la inducción de culpa o vergüenza y la retirada del afecto. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo validar la versión en español de la Dependency-oriented and Achievement-oriented Psychological Control Scale (DAPCS) (Escala de control psicológico orientado a la dependencia y control psicológico orientado al logro), una nueva medida diseñada para evaluar la percepción del control psicológico de un adolescente. Otro objetivo fue determinar la influencia del control psicológico parental percibido sobre el autoconcepto de los adolescentes. Evaluamos la estructura factorial, la fiabilidad y la validez convergente en una muestra de adolescentes tardíos españoles (N = 310, edad media = 19.75). Los análisis de factores exploratorios y confirmatorios mostraron que la estructura factorial de la escala DAPCS se describe mejor con una solución de 2 factores, tanto para padres como para madres, lo que indica la distinción entre control psicológico orientado a la dependencia y el orientado al logro. Los altos índices de consistencia interna indicaron que la escala DAPCS produjo óptimas puntuaciones. Además, la validez convergente fue confirmada por la correlación entre el DAPCS y otras medidas de control psicológico, así como con otras medidas del análisis de la crianza. La regresión jerárquica también mostró que DAPCS predijo el autoconcepto de los adolescentes tardíos. Los resultados de este estudio indican que la versión en español del DAPCS es un instrumento útil para estudiar ambos tipos de control psicológico. Parental psychological control refers to those parental behaviors that interfere with the child's thoughts and feelings and are characterized by excessive use of manipulative techniques, such as inducing guilt or shame and love-withdrawal. This study was aimed at validating the Spanish version of the Dependency-oriented and Achievement-oriented Psychological Control Scale (DAPCS), a new measure designed to assess an adolescent’s perception of psychological control. Another objective was to determine the influence of perceived parental psychological control on adolescents’ self-concept. We evaluated the factor structure, reliability, and convergent validity in a sample of Spanish late adolescents (N = 310, mean age = 19.75). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses showed that the DAPCS factor structure is best described by a 2-factor solution, for both paternal and maternal ratings, indicating the distinction between dependency-oriented and achievement-oriented psychological control. High indices of internal consistency indicated that DAPCS produced reliable scores. Moreover, convergent validity was confirmed by consistent associations between the DAPCS and other measures of psychological control and other parenting dimensions. Hierarchical regression also showed that DAPCS predicted late adolescents’ self-concept. The results of this study indicate that the Spanish version of the DAPCS is a useful instrument for studying both types of psychological control.

The Influence of Perceived Parental Achievement-Oriented Psychological Control on Adolescence's Social Anxiety: The Double Mediating Effects of Maladaptive Perfectionism and Achievement-Related Self Discrepancy

The Influence of Perceived Parental Achievement-Oriented Psychological Control on Adolescence's Social Anxiety: The Double Mediating Effects of Maladaptive Perfectionism and Achievement-Related Self Discrepancy

Identity Synthesis as a Pathway Linking Parenting and Emerging Adults’ Internalizing Problems

The present study examined identity synthesis as a linking pathway in the association between perceived parenting (autonomy support, dependency-oriented psychological control, and achievement-oriented psychological control) and emerging adults’ internalizing problems across three groups (European Americans, African Americans, and Asian Americans). The sample comprised 471 European American, 241 African American, and 355 Asian American emerging adults (total N = 1067; 69% female; Mage = 20.47; SD = 1.79). The mediating role of identity synthesis was tested and compared across ethnic groups via multiple-group path analyses using bootstrapping technique. Findings revealed both similarities and differences across ethnic groups. Specifically, identity synthesis mediated the association between parental autonomy support and internalizing problems in all three ethnic groups. However, identity synthesis only mediated the association between parental dependency-oriented psychological control and internalizing problems for European American emerging adults, and the association between parental achievement-oriented psychological control and internalizing problems for African American and Asian American emerging adults. These findings illustrated the significant roles of parenting and identity development in emerging adults’ psychological adjustment across ethnic groups. Moreover, although parenting indirectly impacted emerging adults’ mental health in all groups, the specific patterns varied across different ethnic groups depending on the particular form of parenting, thus revealing both culturally-shared and -unique pathways from parents’ socialization practices to their offspring’s mental health outcomes.

Parental psychological control, adolescent self-criticism, and adolescent depressive symptoms: A latent change modeling approach in Belgian adolescents.

At the level of both between-person differences and within-person changes across time, parental achievement-oriented psychological control may influence the development of adolescent self-criticism, which in turn may increase vulnerability for adolescent depression. In a two-wave prospective study of 368 adolescents (age 13-17 years), Latent Change Modeling was used with Belgian adolescents' self-report measures. For mothers and fathers separately, adolescent self-criticism intervened in associations between achievement-oriented psychological control and adolescent depressive symptoms, at the level of both between-person differences and within-person changes. When investigating parents simultaneously, only maternal parenting was related directly and indirectly to adolescent depressive symptoms. Our results underscore the importance of personality-related vulnerability in associations between the parenting environment and symptoms of psychopathology during adolescent development.

Exposing the role of coparenting and parenting for adolescent personal identity processes

In line with a family systems perspective, this study examined the association between two aspects of family climate, that of coparenting (cooperation, triangulation) and parenting (autonomy support, dependency-oriented and achievement-oriented psychological control) and their relation to adolescent personal identity formation (commitment making, identification with commitment, exploration in breadth, exploration in depth, ruminative exploration, reconsideration of commitment). Using structural equation modeling (SEM), we tested the hypothesis that coparenting would be associated with adolescent identity formation via parenting. Cross-sectional self-report data were collected from 1,105 Swiss adolescents (aged 13–18 years; 51% female). SEM revealed associations between coparental cooperation and more adaptive identity formation via parental autonomy support. Conversely, coparental triangulation was associated with maladaptive identity dimensions via parental dependency-oriented psychological control. These associations were not moderated by age, gender, or family structure.

Adolescent Effortful Control as Moderator of Father's Psychological Control in Externalizing Problems: A Longitudinal Study

ABSTRACTThis longitudinal study investigates the moderating role of a temperamental trait, the effortful control, in the relation between father's psychological control and externalizing problems. In Wave 1, the participants included 507 adolescents attending the second classes of two public schools situated in two Italian cities; in Wave 2, 482 adolescents attending the fifth classes of high school participated again in the study. The results demonstrated a positive contribution of paternal achievement-oriented psychological control to externalizing problems and a moderator effect of effortful control in the relationship between the father's psychological control and externalizing problems. These findings extend current knowledge on the role of the father in the difficult task of balancing the promotion of individuality without falling into psychological control that can trigger externalizing problems among adolescents, especially when the temperament of the latter does not foresee the availability of self-regulating abilities that mediate disadvantageous reactivity.

Negative eating attitudes and behaviors among adolescents: The role of parental control and perceived peer support

In the present study, we examined from a longitudinal perspective the relationship between parental (both maternal and paternal) psychological control, perceived peer support, and negative eating attitudes and behaviors, focusing on the moderating role that perceived peer support may play in the relationship between parental psychological control in early adolescence and negative eating attitudes and behaviors in late adolescence. In Wave 1, participants were 507 adolescents (249 boys and 258 girls) aged from 14 to 15 years (M = 14.76; SD = 0.63). Three years later (Wave 2), the same adolescents participated again in the study (M = 17.88 years; SD = 0.57). Regression analyses displayed that paternal, but not maternal, achievement-oriented psychological control during early adolescence positively predicted negative eating attitudes and behaviors in late adolescence, whereas perceived peer support negatively predicted negative eating attitudes and behaviors. Results also showed a moderator effect of perceived peer support in the relationship between father's psychological control and negative eating attitudes and behaviors, such that at higher levels of paternal achievement-oriented psychological control, negative eating attitudes and behaviors tended to be higher when perceived peer support was low and to be lower when perceived peer support was high.

Achievement-oriented and dependency-oriented parental psychological control: An examination of specificity to middle childhood achievement and dependency-related problems

Middle childhood is considered a sensitive phase for the development of both dependency and achievement-related problems. In order to target efficient prevention and treatment, it is necessary to identify unique associations with possible precursors. This study hypothesized that children’s dependency-related problems (i.e., separation anxiety and generalized anxiety) would uniquely relate to parental dependency-oriented psychological control and that children’s achievement-related problems (i.e., extrinsic motivation and maladaptive perfectionism) would uniquely relate to parental achievement-oriented psychological control. The study included 180 elementary school children. Results showed that higher levels of children’s separation anxiety uniquely related to more parental dependency-oriented psychological control, while higher levels of children’s extrinsic motivation uniquely related to more parental achievement-oriented psychological control. Contrary to the expectations, higher levels of children’s maladaptive perfectionism were associated with both dimensions of parental psychological control, and children’s generalized anxiety was not associated with any dimension. Study implications are discussed.

The role of intergenerational similarity and parenting in adolescent self-criticism: An actor–partner interdependence model

Research investigating the development of adolescent self-criticism has typically focused on the role of either parental self-criticism or parenting. This study used an actor–partner interdependence model to examine an integrated theoretical model in which achievement-oriented psychological control has an intervening role in the relation between parental and adolescent self-criticism. Additionally, the relative contribution of both parents and the moderating role of adolescent gender were examined. Participants were 284 adolescents (M = 14 years, range = 12–16 years) and their parents (M = 46 years, range = 32–63 years). Results showed that only maternal self-criticism was directly related to adolescent self-criticism. However, both parents' achievement-oriented psychological control had an intervening role in the relation between parent and adolescent self-criticism in both boys and girls. Moreover, one parent's achievement-oriented psychological control was not predicted by the self-criticism of the other parent.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ALEXITHYMIA, PARENTING STYLE, AND PARENTAL CONTROL.

Research on the relationship between parental alexithymia and parenting is relatively scarce. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between parental alexithymia and three styles of parenting (authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive) and the relationships between parental alexithymia and two domains of psychological control (dependency and achievement). The participants were 946 parents ages 29-60 years (mothers: n = 473, M age = 44.6 yr., SD = 4.7; fathers: n = 473, M age = 48.1 yr., SD = 5.1) of children ages 11-18 years. All participants completed a sociodemographic questionnaire, the Toronto Alexithymia Scale-20 (TAS-20), the Parental Authority Questionnaire-Revised (PAQ-R), and the Dependency-Oriented and Achievement-Oriented Psychological Control Scale (DAPCS). Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to examine whether alexithymia could predict the three parenting styles (authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive) and the two domains of psychological control (dependency and achievement). The first model showed that alexithymia was a positive predictor of authoritative and permissive parenting and a negative predictor of authoritarian parenting in both paternal and maternal data. The second model showed that, in both paternal and maternal data, alexithymia was a positive predictor of both dependency-oriented psychological control (DPC) and achievement-oriented psychological control (APC).

Validation of the Dependency-Oriented and Achievement-Oriented Psychological Control Scale in Middle Childhood

The psychometric properties of the Dependency-oriented and Achievement-oriented Psychological Control Scale (DAPCS) have been proved appropriate for adolescent samples. Since parental psychological control plays a key role in the development of child pathology from an early age, it is important to evaluate the DAPCS in younger samples too. We examine the DAPCS’ validity in two samples of elementary school age children (n = 180 and n = 118). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses in the first sample supported a two-factor structure, indicating the distinction between dependency-oriented psychological control (DPC) and achievement-oriented psychological control (APC). Confirmatory factor analysis in the second sample resulted in successful replication of the factor structure. Significant negative correlations between both parental psychological control dimensions and parental emotional support indicated the convergent validity of the scale. Discriminant validity was indicated by a significant unique association between higher levels of DPC and child perceived social problems, and higher levels of APC and child sensitivity to mistakes. This study provides initial justification for the application of a shorter version of the DAPCS in clinical and research settings dealing with parental psychological control in middle childhood and related child adjustment problems.

Psychologically Controlling Parenting and Personality Vulnerability to Depression: A Study in Peruvian Late Adolescents

This study examined associations between two domain-specific manifestations of perceived psychologically controlling parenting (i.e., dependency oriented and achievement-oriented), dimensions of personality vulnerability to depression (i.e., dependency and self-criticism), and depressive symptoms in Peruvian late adolescents (N = 292, 60 % female). Structural equation modeling showed that perceived dependency-oriented psychological control was related specifically to dependency and that perceived achievement-oriented psychological control was related specifically to self-criticism. Both dimensions of personality vulnerability played an intervening role in associations between the domains of psychologically controlling parenting and depressive symptoms. In addition, dependency-oriented psychological control interacted with perceived parental responsiveness in the prediction of depressive symptoms, such that responsiveness exacerbated effects of psychological control on depressive symptoms. Results were similar across maternal and paternal ratings of parenting. Findings are interpreted in light of the debate about the cross cultural generalization of the effects of psychologically controlling parenting.

Parenting Dimensions and Internalizing Difficulties in Italian and U.S. Emerging Adults: The Intervening Role of Autonomy and Relatedness

The present study examined the associations between emerging adults’ perceived parental psychological control and autonomy support, and their autonomy, relatedness and internalizing difficulties in Italy and the U.S. The participants included 494 Italian and 414 U.S. college students, between 18 and 28 years of age (Mean = 21.58, SD = 2.18). Our findings showed that dependency-oriented psychological control had no significant direct associations with autonomy, relatedness or internalizing difficulties. Moreover, the association between parental autonomy support and internalizing problems was fully intervened by autonomy and relatedness, whereas the association between achievement-oriented psychological control and anxiety and depressive symptoms was partially intervened by autonomy and relatedness. Finally, although parental psychological control and autonomy support had similar effects on maladjustment across the two countries, relatedness appeared to play a more central role as an intervening variable for anxiety in the Italian group than in the U.S. group. Overall, our findings highlighted the importance of examining parents’ contributions to emerging adults’ internalizing problems via autonomy support and psychological control across cultures.

A model of parental achievement-oriented psychological control in academically gifted students

This study investigated achievement-oriented parent socialization as it pertains to school avoidance in a sample of gifted students. A serial mediation model examining relationships among parental achievement-oriented psychological control (APC), fear of academic failure, academic amotivation, and school avoidance was tested. The sample included 230 gifted youth (Mage = 13.36; SD = 1.67) involved in summer programming. After factor structure and internal consistency of the instruments were confirmed, separate mediation models were analyzed for mother and father psychological control. In both models, bootstrap evidence supported the indirect relationship between parental APC and school avoidance (R2 = .29 mother/.29 father) through fear of academic failure (R2 = .18/.17) and academic amotivation (R2 = .10/.08). Many researchers of parental socialization and motivation focus on the brighter side of being gifted. Findings of this study follow a darker path of controlling socialization and avoidance-based psychological constructs that create problems in a subset of gifted students.

Psychometric Properties and Convergent Validity of the Dependency-Oriented and Achievement-Oriented Psychological Control Scale (DAPCS) with Italian Adolescents

This study is aimed to validate the Italian version of the dependency-oriented and achievement-oriented psychological control scale (DAPCS), a self-report questionnaire designed to assess the adolescent’s perception of the two dimensions of psychological control. In Study 1, we assessed factorial validity and reliability of the Italian version of DAPCS with a sample of adolescents. In Study 2, we examined the convergent validity of the Italian version of the DAPCS analyzing the associations between the two domains of psychological control and well-established measures related to them such as strictness/supervision, overprotection, non dependency on parents, and family functioning. Confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the hypothesized two-factor solution of the DAPCS, with a 16 items’ version better fitting the data, for paternal as well as for maternal ratings. High indices of internal consistency indicated that both subscales produced reliable scores. Convergent validity was confirmed by positive associations between the DAPCS’ subscales and measures of strictness and negative associations between the DAPCS’ subscales and measures of global family functioning, both for maternal and paternal ratings. Finally, results evidenced significant effects for adolescents’ and parental gender on achievement-oriented psychological control, with mothers rated higher than fathers by males and fathers rated higher than mothers by females. Overall, the results of these studies indicated that the Italian form of the DAPCS might be a useful instrument to assess the two domain-specific types of parental psychological control among Italian-speaking adolescents.

Parental Psychological Control, Quality of Family Context and Life Satisfaction Among Italian Adolescents

The aim of the study was to explore the unique and common contributions of parental psychological control and family functioning to global life satisfaction among Italian adolescents while considering the type of parental psychological control: dependencyoriented and achievement-oriented. Two hundred fifty-five adolescents (104 boys and 151 girls) from 15 to 17 years of age (mean age = 15.98, SD = .76) completed self-report measures on perceived parental psychological control, dependency- and achievement-oriented, family functioning and global life satisfaction. Correlation analyses indicated that parental psychological control oriented to both dependency and achievement was negatively related to global life satisfaction, whereas global life satisfaction was significantly and positively related to diverse dimensions of family functioning, such as affective responsiveness and involvement, communication, and general healthy functioning. Regarding the predictive role of parental psychological control on global life satisfaction, both dependency- and achievement-oriented control predicted a low level of life satisfaction, whereas among family-functioning variables, only general healthy functioning and affective involvement predicted a high level of life satisfaction. Finally, data showed a significant effect of the interaction between achievement-oriented psychological control and two dimensions of healthy family functioning in predicting life satisfaction among adolescents, with family general functioning and affective involvement moderating the negative effects of parental psychological control on life satisfaction: at higher levels of parental achievement-oriented psychological control, life satisfaction tended to be higher when family general functioning and affective involvement were high

Parental psychological control and dysfunctional separation–individuation: A tale of two different dynamics

This study examined associations between psychologically controlling parenting and two possible manifestations of problematic separation–individuation (i.e., dysfunctional dependence and dysfunctional independence). To explain these associations, it has been argued that psychological control is an inherently independence-stifling parenting dimension that gives rise to a dysfunctional dependent orientation. In this study, it was argued that psychological control may relate to dysfunctional dependence and dysfunctional independence, depending on whether parents’ use of psychological control is driven by issues of interpersonal closeness (i.e., dependency-oriented psychological control) or by issues of achievement (i.e., achievement-oriented psychological control). A Belgian sample of 232 emerging adults, involved in the process of home leaving, and their parents completed self-report questionnaires. Regression analyses indicated that domain-specific expressions of psychological control were related differentially to dysfunctional dependent and dysfunctional independent manifestations of problematic separation–individuation. Emerging adults’ residential status did not moderate these associations. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

A Further Examination of the Distinction Between Dependency-Oriented and Achievement-Oriented Parental Psychological Control: Psychometric Properties of the DAPCS with French-Speaking Late Adolescents

Psychological control refers to parental behaviors that intrude on the psychological and emotional development of the child. In 2010, Soenens et al. proposed a distinction between two domain-specific expressions of psychological control, that is, Dependency-oriented Psychological Control (DPC) and Achievement-oriented Psychological Control (APC). The aim of this study was to evaluate the factor structure, reliability, and convergent validity of the French form of the Dependency-oriented and Achievement-oriented Psychological Control Scale (DAPCS; Soenens et al. in J Pers 78(1):217–256, 2010) in a sample of late adolescents (N = 291, mean age = 21.65). Confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the hypothesized two-factor solution of the DAPCS for paternal as well as for maternal ratings. Moreover, high indices of internal consistency indicated that both subscales produced reliable scores. Further, convergent validity was confirmed by theoretically consistent associations between the DAPCS’ subscales and well-established assessments of general parenting style dimensions. Finally, results evidenced gender specific patterns supporting the relevance of domain differentiation in the assessment of psychological control. Overall, the results of this study indicated that the French form of the DAPCS might be a useful instrument to assess two domain-specific types of parental psychological control among French-speaking adolescents.