Accurate Source Model Research Articles

Ray tracing heat source model for polymer powder bed fusion considering laser energy absorption and multiple reflection

Powder bed fusion is considered one of the most promising additive manufacturing technologies, but the generation and evolution of volumetric heat source involved in the powder bed fusion process remain unclear as laser-powder bed interactions has not been fully developed. In this work, a ray tracing model is established to simulate the laser-powder bed interaction during the powder bed fusion process. Five types of powder beds with homogeneous and non-homogeneous particle radius distributions are generated using the discrete element method, and then the energy distributions in the ray tracing heat source are explored by considering laser energy absorption and multiple reflection. The results indicate that the energy distribution in the ray tracing heat source basically exhibits a Gaussian-like trend in the horizontal plane and an exponential decay in the vertical direction. The fitting coefficients Z0 (related to laser power) and η2 (related to laser radius) of the ray tracing heat source for different powder beds show maximum differences of 21.87 % and 72.22 %, respectively, compared to conventional Gaussian volumetric heat sources. The deviation between the fitting coefficient η3 (related to laser energy attenuation) and the corresponding fitted attenuation coefficient of the powder bed is related to the overall uniformity of the powder bed. Due to multiple reflections of the laser within the powder bed, the ray tracing heat source has larger width and depth as compared to Gaussian volumetric heat source. This study is significant because it provides a more accurate heat source model for the reliable prediction and safe operation of powder bed fusion process.

Numerical Modeling of Distortions and Residual Stresses During Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing of an ER 5183 Alloy with Weaving Deposition

This study deals with the numerical modelling of residual stresses and distortions occurring during wire arc additive manufacturing of ER 5183 parts with weaving deposition. It is shown that the mesh size, as well as the accurate implementation of the heat source weaving pattern has a significant impact on the results. The mechanical material properties for the simulation are evaluated utilizing in-house standardized test equipment. Validation of the thermo-mechanical simulation is done by monitoring temperatures and distortions during the process. Additionally, 3D scans of the part geometry and residual stress measurements using the hole drilling method are conducted post manufacturing. A good agreement between the experimental measurements and the numerical simulation results is found with the use of an accurate heat source model.

Deep learning based source imaging provides strong sublobar localization of epileptogenic zone from MEG interictal spikes

Electromagnetic source imaging (ESI) offers unique capability of imaging brain dynamics for studying brain functions and aiding the clinical management of brain disorders. Challenges exist in ESI due to the ill-posedness of the inverse problem and thus the need of modeling the underlying brain dynamics for regularizations. Advances in generative models provide opportunities for more accurate and realistic source modeling that could offer an alternative approach to ESI for modeling the underlying brain dynamics beyond equivalent physical source models. However, it is not straightforward to explicitly formulate the knowledge arising from these generative models within the conventional ESI framework. Here we investigate a novel source imaging framework based on mesoscale neuronal modeling and deep learning (DL) that can learn the sensor-source mapping relationship directly from MEG data for ESI. Two DL-based ESI models were trained based on data generated by neural mass models and either generic or personalized head models. The robustness of the two DL models was evaluated by systematic computer simulations and clinical validation in a cohort of 29 drug-resistant focal epilepsy patients who underwent intracranial EEG (iEEG) evaluation or surgical resection. Results estimated from pre-operative MEG interictal spikes were quantified using the overlap with resection regions and the distance to the seizure-onset zone (SOZ) defined by iEEG recordings. The DL-based ESI provided robust results when no personalized head geometry is considered, reaching a spatial dispersion of 21.90 ± 19.03 mm, sublobar concordance of 83 %, and sublobar sensitivity and specificity of 66 and 97 % respectively. When using personalized head geometry derived from individual patients’ MRI in the training data, personalized DL-based ESI model can further improve the performance and reached a spatial dispersion of 8.19 ± 8.14 mm, sublobar concordance of 93 %, and sublobar sensitivity and specificity of 77 and 99 % respectively. When compared to the SOZ, the localization error of the personalized approach is 15.78 ± 5.54 mm, outperforming the conventional benchmarks. This work demonstrates that combining generative models and deep learning enables an accurate and robust imaging of epileptogenic zone from MEG recordings with strong sublobar precision, suggesting its added value to enhancing MEG source localization and imaging, and to epilepsy source localization and other clinical applications.

A comparison of three water discharge forecasting models for monsoon climate region: A case study in cimanuk-jatigede watershed Indonesia

Forecasting the discharge of the water resources model of a river or reservoir is crucial in making decisions on water resource management. Although numerous popular discharge forecasting models have been developed, real-time forecasts remain challenging. This study evaluates discharge forecasts using model of water balance model (FJ Mock and NRECA), autoregressive stochastic (Chain Markov). This study compared the accuracy of the discharge forecast results produced by the F.J. Mock, NRECA, and Markov Chain by five statistical indicators. Based on the simulation results, these models all have an accuracy level of probability in discharge ranging from above 70% which indicates a significant relationship between each model and are suitable alternatives for forecasting discharge and indicating an increase or decrease in discharge of up to 70% is predictable using this model. In comparison to other models, the highest correlation (r) is the Markov Chain model (0.84) with KGE (0.81) and the next sequence is the NRECA, and F.J. Mock. Therefore, the most accurate, precise, and representative water source model alternative for forecasts is the Markov Chain model. The FJ Mock model and the NRECA model are physical-based rainfall-runoff models, while the Markov model is time series generation model. In addition, this model is to be selected as the basis for modeling in forecasting river flow or optimal management of a reservoir, as well as determining the future discharge, especially in monsoon climate regions.

Earth model-space exploration in Southern California: Influence of topography, geotechnical layer, and attenuation on wavefield accuracy

Accurately predicting the seismic wavefield is important for physics-based earthquake hazard studies and is dependent on an accurate source model, a good model of the subsurface geology, and the full physics of wave propagation. Here, we conduct numerical experiments to investigate the effect of different representations of the Southern California Earthquake Center and Harvard community velocity models on seismic waveform predictions in the vicinity of the San Andreas fault in Salton Trough. We test general preconceptions about the importance of topography, near-surface geotechnical layering, and anelastic attenuation up to a maximum frequency of 0.5 Hz. For the Southern California Earthquake Center model developed without topography, we implement 1D and linear model extensions that preserve the geologic structure and a pull-up approach that adapts the original model to topographic variations and distorts the subsurface. The Harvard model includes an elevation model, so we test the squashed topography representation, which flattens it. For both community models, we modify the top 350 m by partially applying the Ely geotechnical layer using a minimum shear wave velocity of 600 m/s and incorporate an Olsen attenuation model using a ratio of 0.05. We evaluate the resulting 24 model representations using the classical waveform misfit and five moderate-magnitude earthquakes. Only the inclusion of attenuation consistently improves the wavefield predictions. It becomes more impactful at higher frequencies, where it significantly improves the performance levels of the crude 1D and linear extension models close to that of the original version. The pull-up topography representation also enhances the waveform prediction ability of the original model. Squashing the topography of the elevation-referenced Harvard model produces better seismogram fits, suggesting that seismic imagers construct community tomographic models without topography to avoid issues related to missing model parameters near the free surface or discrepancies with a different elevation model. Although full implementation of the Ely geotechnical layer that would permit shear wave velocities as low as 90 m/s proves computationally expensive, our partial implementation provides slightly better results in some cases. Our results can serve as recommendations for implementing these community models for future validation or optimization studies.

A study on a representative heat source model for simulating laser welding for liquid hydrogen storage containers

Laser welding enhances the productivity with high speed, and minimizes thermoelastic distortion with a concentrated heat source for a narrow area over a short period of time. With these strengths various industries such as the automobile, aviation, and shipbuilding adopt that. However welding distortion is still one of principal problems, simulation of distortion and corresponding design are very important for applying that technology. Naturally accurate laser welding heat source model is needed, but there is not representative heat source model which can cover diverse types of models. This study proposes a multi-layered heat source model as a representative model, and develops a welding heat source that complies with welding conditions by comparing it to the bead-on-plate welding experiment on 304L stainless steel, a material used for cryogenic purposes with liquid hydrogen condition. To derive a welding heat source, a parametric study was used as it was able to identify an appropriate solution by changing the parameter values constituting the heat source for finite element analysis, where the physical properties for each temperature were applied. For this process optimization method was applied, and the objective function and constraints were defined based on the value of temperature through simulation, also a global optimization algorithm was adopted. In this study, we suggest a representative model that can be used under most welding conditions; this is a method that can be of great help in future welding distortion analyses and can be used in a design that can tolerate distortion.

A dynamic prediction method of transient temperature in friction stir welding process

Establishing an accurate heat source model is the primary work in analyzing welding temperature field. We propose a novel transient temperature prediction method for friction stir welding by analyzing the material movement process to build an accurate heat source model. For verifying the present method, several groups of friction stir welding experiments were carried out, and the computed results obtained by the present method are compared with the experimental results. The effects of rotational speed, tilting angle, welding speed and normal force on the calculation results are analyzed. It is found that the peak temperature in the welding temperature field increases with the increase in rotating speed, tilting angle and normal force, and decreases with the increase of welding speed. The peak time decreases with the increase of rotational speed, tilting angle and welding speed, and almost does not change with the normal force.

A simplified tempo-spatial model to predict airborne pathogen release risk in enclosed spaces: An Eulerian-Lagrangian CFD approach

COVID19 pathogens are primarily transmitted via airborne respiratory droplets expelled from infected bio-sources. However, there is a lack of simplified accurate source models that can represent the airborne release to be utilized in the safe-social distancing measures and ventilation design of buildings.Although computational fluid dynamics (CFD) can provide accurate models of airborne disease transmissions, they are computationally expensive. Thus, this study proposes an innovative framework that benefits from a series of relatively accurate CFD simulations to first generate a dataset of respiratory events and then to develop a simplified source model.The dataset has been generated based on key clinical parameters (i.e., the velocity of droplet release) and environmental factors (i.e., room temperature and relative humidity) in the droplet release modes. An Eulerian CFD model is first validated against experimental data and then interlinked with a Lagrangian CFD model to simulate trajectory and evaporation of numerous droplets in various sizes (0.1 μm–700 μm). A risk assessment model previously developed by the authors is then applied to the simulation cases to identify the horizontal and vertical spread lengths (risk cloud) of viruses in each case within an exposure time. Eventually, an artificial neural network-based model is fitted to the spread lengths to develop the simplified predictive source model. The results identify three main regimes of risk clouds, which can be fairly predicted by the ANN model.

New capabilities of the Monte Carlo dose engine ARCHER-RT: Clinical validation of the Varian TrueBeam machine for VMAT external beam radiotherapy.

The Monte Carlo radiation transport method is considered the most accurate approach for absorbed dose calculations in external beam radiation therapy. In this study, an efficient and accurate source model of the Varian TrueBeam 6X STx Linac is developed and integrated with a fast Monte Carlo photon-electron transport absorbed dose engine, ARCHER-RT, which is capable of being executed on CPUs, NVIDIA GPUs, and AMD GPUs. This capability of fast yet accurate radiation dose calculation is essential for clinical utility of this new technology. This paper describes the software and algorithmic developments made to the ARCHER-RT absorbed dose engine. AMD's Heterogeneous-Compute Interface for Portability (HIP) was implemented in ARCHER-RT to allow for device independent execution on NVIDIA and AMD GPUs. Architecture-specific atomic-add algorithms have been identified and both more accurate single-precision and double-precision computational absorbed dose calculation methods have been added to ARCHER-RT and validated through a test case to evaluate the accuracy and performance of the algorithms. The validity of the source model and the radiation transport physics were benchmarked against Monte Carlo simulations performed with EGSnrc. Secondary dose-check physics plans, and a clinical prostate treatment plan were calculated to demonstrate the applicability of the platform for clinical use. Absorbed dose difference maps and gamma analyses were conducted to establish the accuracy and consistency between the two Monte Carlo models. Timing studies were conducted on a CPU, an NVIDIA GPU, and an AMD GPU to evaluate the computational speed of ARCHER-RT. Percent depth doses were computed for different field sizes ranging from 1.5cm2 ×1.5cm2 to 22cm2 ×40cm2 and the two codes agreed for all points outside high gradient regions within 3%. Axial profiles computed for a 10cm2 ×10cm2 field for multiple depths agreed for all points outside high gradient regions within 2%. The test case investigating the impact of native single-precision compared to double-precision showed differences in voxels as large as 71.47% and the implementation of KAS single-precision reduced the difference to less than 0.01%. The 3%/3mm gamma pass rates for an MPPG5a multileaf collimator (MLC) test case and a clinical VMAT prostate plan were 94.2% and 98.4% respectively. Timing studies demonstrated the calculation of a VMAT plan was completed in 50.3, 187.9, and 216.8s on an NVIDIA GPU, AMD GPU, and Intel CPU, respectively. ARCHER-RT is capable of patient-specific VMAT external beam photon absorbed dose calculations and its potential has been demonstrated by benchmarking against a well validated EGSnrc model of a Varian TrueBeam. Additionally, the implementation of AMD's HIP has shown the flexibility of the ARCHER-RT platform for device independent calculations. This work demonstrates the significant addition of functionality added to ARCHER-RT framework which has marked utility for both research and clinical applications and demonstrates further that Monte Carlo-based absorbed dose engines like ARCHER-RT have the potential for widespread clinical implementation.

Monte Carlo kilovoltage X-ray tube simulation: A statistical analysis and compact simulation method

IntroductionMonte Carlo (MC) simulations are a powerful tool for improving image quality in X-ray based imaging modalities. An accurate X-ray source model is essential to MC modeling for CBCT but can be difficult to implement on a GPU while maintaining efficiency and memory limitations. A statistical analysis of the photon distribution from a MC X-ray tube simulation is conducted in hopes of building a compact source model. Materials & methodsMC simulations of an X-ray tube were carried out using BEAMnrc. The resulting photons were sorted into four categories: primary, scatter, off-focal radiation (OFR), and both (scatter and OFR). A statistical analysis of the photon components (energy, position, direction) was completed. A novel method for a compact (memory efficient) representation of the PHSP data was implemented and tested using different statistical based linear transformations (PCA, ZCA, ICA), as well as a geometrical transformation. ResultsThe statistical analysis showed all photon groupings had strong correlations between position and direction, with the largest correlation in the primary data. The novel method was successful in compactly representing the primary (error < 2%) and scatter (error < 6%) photon groupings by reducing the component correlations. Discussion & conclusionStatistical linear transforms provide a method of reducing the memory required to accurately simulate an X-ray source in a GPU MC system. If all photon types are required, the proposed method reduces the memory requirements by 3.8 times. When only primary and scatter data is needed, the memory requirement is reduced from gigabytes to kilobytes.

External beam patient dose verification based on the integral quality monitor (IQM®) output signals

Background: The Integral Quality Monitor (IQM®) can essentially measure the integral fluence through a segment and provide real-time information about the accuracy of radiation delivery based on comparisons of measured segment signals and pre-calculated reference values. However, the present IQM chamber cannot calculate the dose in the patient. Aim: This study aims to make use of IQM field output signals to calculate the number of monitor units (MUs) delivered through an arbitrary treatment field in order to convert Monte Carlo (MC)-generated dose distributions in a patient model into absolute dose. Methods: XiO and Monaco treatment planning systems (TPSs) were used to define treatment beam portals for cervix and esophagus conformal radiotherapy as well as prostate intensity-modulated radiotherapy for the translation of patient and beam setup information from DICOM to DOSXYZnrc. The planned beams were simulated in a patient model built from actual patient CT images and each simulated integral field/segment was weighted with its MUs before summation to get the total dose in the plan. The segment beam weights (MUs) were calculated as the ratio of the open-field IQM measured signal and the calculated signal per MU extracted from chamber sensitivity maps. These are the actual MUs delivered not just MUs set. The beam weighting method was evaluated by comparing weighted MC doses with original planned doses using profile and isodose comparisons, dose difference maps, γ analysis and dose-volume histogram (DVH) data. Results: γ pass rates of up to 98% were found, except for the esophagus plan where the γ pass rate was below 45%. DVH comparisons showed good agreement for most organs, with the largest differences observed in low-density lung. However, these discrepancies can result from differences in dose calculation algorithms or differences in MUs used for dose weighting planned by the TPS and MUs calculated using IQM field output signals. To test this, a 4-field box DOSXYZnrc MC simulation weighted with planned (XiO) MUs was compared with the same simulation weighted with IQM-based MUs. Dose differences of up to 5% were found on the isocentre slice. For XiO versus MC, up to 7% dose differences were found, indicating additional error due to limitations of XiO’s superposition algorithm. Dose differences between MC Monaco and MC EGSnrc were less than 3%. Conclusions: The most valuable comparison was MC versus MC as it eliminated algorithm discrepancies and evaluated dose differences precisely according to beam weighting. For XiO TPS, care must be taken as dose differences may also arise due to limitations in XiO’s planning software, not merely due to differences in MUs. Overall, the IQM was successfully used to compute beam dose weights to accurately reconstruct the patient dose using unweighted MC beams. Our technique can be used for pre-treatment QA provided each segment output is known and an accurate linac source model is available.

Modeling the large runup along a narrow segment of the Kaikoura coast, New Zealand following the November 2016 tsunami from a potential landslide

The 2016 Mw 7.8 Kaikoura earthquake and consequent tsunami have been controversial because of uncertainty over whether and where the plate interface ruptured and the incapability of the proposed source models to reproduce the near-field runup of 7 m. Existing models identify a wide range of locations for the interface rupture, from on land to offshore, and fail to reproduce runup of 7 m near Kaikoura. To generate the large tsunami peak in Kaikoura tide gauge record and the observed runup height, offshore seafloor movement is necessary, but the offshore extension of the plate-interface rupture and its type, either seismic rupture or a landslide, is uncertain. Here, we propose a submarine landslide in addition to the earthquake source, with the landslide delayed 10–20 min after the earthquake rupture. The landslide volume is 4.5–5.2 km3, located within 173.7–174.3oE (longitude) and 42.6–42.15oS (latitude). Our proposed dual tsunami source successfully reproduces near-field tide gauge records as well as observed near-field runup height of 7 m. We showed that more accurate source models of earthquakes can be achieved by considering observed runup data through runup inversions in addition to waveform inversions.

A realistic, accurate and fast source modeling approach for the EEG forward problem

The aim of this paper is to advance electroencephalography (EEG) source analysis using finite element method (FEM) head volume conductor models that go beyond the standard three compartment (skin, skull, brain) approach and take brain tissue inhomogeneity (gray and white matter and cerebrospinal fluid) into account. The new approach should enable accurate EEG forward modeling in the thin human cortical structures and, more specifically, in the especially thin cortices in children brain research or in pathological applications. The source model should thus be focal enough to be usable in the thin cortices, but should on the other side be more realistic than the current standard mathematical point dipole. Furthermore, it should be numerically accurate and computationally fast. We propose to achieve the best balance between these demands with a current preserving (divergence conforming) dipolar source model. We develop and investigate a varying number of current preserving source basis elements n (n=1,…,n=5). For validation, we conducted numerical experiments within a multi-layered spherical domain, where an analytical solution exists. We show that the accuracy increases along with the number of basis elements, while focality decreases. The results suggest that the best balance between accuracy and focality in thin cortices is achieved with n=4 (or in extreme cases even n=3) basis functions, while in thicker cortices n=5 is recommended to obtain the highest accuracy. We also compare the current preserving approach to two further FEM source modeling techniques, namely partial integration and St. Venant, and show that the best current preserving source model outperforms the competing methods with regard to overall balance. For all tested approaches, FEM transfer matrices enable high computational speed. We implemented the new EEG forward modeling approaches into the open source duneuro library for forward modeling in bioelectromagnetism to enable its broader use by the brain research community. This library is build upon the DUNE framework for parallel finite elements simulations and integrates with high-level toolboxes like FieldTrip. Additionally, an inversion test has been implemented using the realistic head model to demonstrate and compare the differences between the aforementioned source models.

Validation and clinical implementation of an accurate Monte Carlo code for pencil beam scanning proton therapy.

Monte Carlo (MC)‐based dose calculations are generally superior to analytical dose calculations (ADC) in modeling the dose distribution for proton pencil beam scanning (PBS) treatments. The purpose of this paper is to present a methodology for commissioning and validating an accurate MC code for PBS utilizing a parameterized source model, including an implementation of a range shifter, that can independently check the ADC in commercial treatment planning system (TPS) and fast Monte Carlo dose calculation in opensource platform (MCsquare). The source model parameters (including beam size, angular divergence and energy spread) and protons per MU were extracted and tuned at the nozzle exit by comparing Tool for Particle Simulation (TOPAS) simulations with a series of commissioning measurements using scintillation screen/CCD camera detector and ionization chambers. The range shifter was simulated as an independent object with geometric and material information. The MC calculation platform was validated through comprehensive measurements of single spots, field size factors (FSF) and three‐dimensional dose distributions of spread‐out Bragg peaks (SOBPs), both without and with the range shifter. Differences in field size factors and absolute output at various depths of SOBPs between measurement and simulation were within 2.2%, with and without a range shifter, indicating an accurate source model. TOPAS was also validated against anthropomorphic lung phantom measurements. Comparison of dose distributions and DVHs for representative liver and lung cases between independent MC and analytical dose calculations from a commercial TPS further highlights the limitations of the ADC in situations of highly heterogeneous geometries. The fast MC platform has been implemented within our clinical practice to provide additional independent dose validation/QA of the commercial ADC for patient plans. Using the independent MC, we can more efficiently commission ADC by reducing the amount of measured data required for low dose “halo” modeling, especially when a range shifter is employed.

Spatial mapping of underwater noise radiated from passing vessels using automatic identification system data

Information regarding the spatial distribution of noise radiated by ships in specific areas is used as basic data for the protection of marine organisms and establishment of marine spatial planning. This study derived the spatial distribution of the noise radiated from ships navigating the southern region of Korea by acoustic modeling using Automatic Identification System data. The acoustic energy propagated from a ship to all spatial points in the experimental area was modeled using a ray-based model, and the noise level at a particular point was incoherently summed over all spatial points and averaged over time. By applying the acoustic modeling technique, we derived the average noise level at frequencies below 1 kHz radiated from ships in the ocean, and compared it with the acoustic data measured during the same period. Discrepancy between both results was found at frequencies below 250 Hz, and the possible cause of this discrepancy is related to the power-law model used to calculate the source level of the ship based on an empirical formula. The difference in current can be reliably reduced by applying a more accurate ship source model.

A photon source model based on particle transport in a parameterized accelerator structure for Monte Carlo dose calculations.

An accurate source model of a medical linear accelerator is essential for Monte Carlo (MC) dose calculations. This study aims to propose an analytical photon source model based on particle transport in parameterized accelerator structures, focusing on a more realistic determination of linac photon spectra compared to existing approaches. We designed the primary and secondary photon sources based on the photons attenuated and scattered by a parameterized flattening filter. The primary photons were derived by attenuating bremsstrahlung photons based on the path length in the filter. Conversely, the secondary photons were derived from the decrement of the primary photons in the attenuation process. This design facilitates these sources to share the free parameters of the filter shape and be related to each other through the photon interaction in the filter. We introduced two other parameters of the primary photon source to describe the particle fluence in penumbral regions. All the parameters are optimized based on calculated dose curves in water using the pencil-beam-based algorithm. To verify the modeling accuracy, we compared the proposed model with the phase space data (PSD) of the Varian TrueBeam 6 and 15MV accelerators in terms of the beam characteristics and the dose distributions. The EGS5 Monte Carlo code was used to calculate the dose distributions associated with the optimized model and reference PSD in a homogeneous water phantom and a heterogeneous lung phantom. We calculated the percentage of points passing 1D and 2D gamma analysis with 1%/1mm criteria for the dose curves and lateral dose distributions, respectively. The optimized model accurately reproduced the spectral curves of the reference PSD both on- and off-axis. The depth dose and lateral dose profiles of the optimized model also showed good agreement with those of the reference PSD. The passing rates of the 1D gamma analysis with 1%/1mm criteria between the model and PSD were 100% for 4×4, 10×10, and 20×20cm2 fields at multiple depths. For the 2D dose distributions calculated in the heterogeneous lung phantom, the 2D gamma pass rate was 100% for 6 and 15MV beams. The model optimization time was less than 4min. The proposed source model optimization process accurately produces photon fluence spectra from a linac using valid physical properties, without detailed knowledge of the geometry of the linac head, and with minimal optimization time.

Hybrid Monte Carlo source model: Advantages and deficiencies

Abstract Monte Carlo (MC) simulation is the gold standard for dose calculation. An accurate mathematical source model can be used for the radiation beams. Source models can consist of sub-sources or fewer sources with data that need to be measured. This can speed up treatment plan verification without the need for a full simulation of the radiation treatment machine. Aims: This study aimed to construct a novel hybrid source model for 6 MV photon beams for an Elekta Synergy accelerator and to commission it against measured beam data and treatments plans. Methods and Material: The model comprised of a circular photon and planar electron contamination source. The modified Schiff formula provided off-axis variable bremsstrahlung spectra. Collimation and scatter were modelled with error functions. An exponential function modelled the transmitted fluence through the collimators. The source model was commissioned by comparing simulated and measured MC data. Dose data included profiles, depth dose and film measurements in a Rando phantom. Field sizes ranged from 1 × 1 cm2 to 40 × 40 cm2. Results: Regular, wedged and asymmetrical fields could be modelled within 1.5% or 1.5 mm. More than 95% of all points lie within 3% or 3 mm for the multi-leaf collimators contours data. A gamma criterion of 3% or 3 mm was met for a complex treatment case. Conclusions: The two sub-source model replicated clinical 6 MV Elekta Synergy photons beams and could calculate the dose accurately for conformal treatments in complex geometries such as a head-and-neck case.

Scaled SFS method for Lambertian surface 3D measurement under point source lighting.

A Lambertian surface is a kind of very important assumption in shape from shading (SFS), which is widely used in many measurement cases. In this paper, a novel scaled SFS method is developed to measure the shape of a Lambertian surface with dimensions. In which, a more accurate light source model is investigated under the illumination of a simple point light source, the relationship between surface depth map and the recorded image grayscale is established by introducing the camera matrix into the model. Together with the constraints of brightness, smoothness and integrability, the surface shape with dimensions can be obtained by analyzing only one image using the scaled SFS method. The algorithm simulations show a perfect matching between the simulated structures and the results, the rebuilding root mean square error (RMSE) is below 0.6mm. Further experiment is performed by measuring a PVC tube internal surface, the overall measurement error lies below 2%.

Determining the focal spot limit of 1 MeV X-ray targets: Monte Carlo simulation of the point spread function

Among all microfocus X-ray tubes, 1MeV has remained a “gray zone” despite its universal application in radiation therapy and non-destructive testing. One challenge existing in fabricating 1MeV microfocus X-ray tubes is beam broadening inside metal anodes, which limits the minimum focal spot size a system can obtain. In particular, a complete understanding of the intrinsic broadening process, i.e., the point-spread function (PSF) of X-ray targets is needed. In this paper, relationships between PSF and beam energy, target thickness and electron incidence angle were investigated via Monte Carlo simulation. Focal spot limits for both transmission- and reflection-type tungsten targets at 0.5, 1 and 1.5MeV were calculated, with target thicknesses ranging from 1μm to 2cm. Transmission-type targets with thickness less than 5μm could achieve micrometer-scale spots while reflection-type targets exhibited superiority for spots larger than 100μm. In addition, by demonstrating the spot variation at off-normal incidence, the role of unidirectional beam was explored in microfocus X-ray systems. We expect that these results can enable alternative designs to improve the focal spot limit of X-ray tubes and benefit accurate photon source modeling.

A revised dosimetric characterization of the model S700 electronic brachytherapy source containing an anode-centering plastic insert and other components not included in the 2006 model

The model S700 Axxent electronic brachytherapy source by Xoft, Inc., was characterized by Rivard et al. in 2006. Since then, the source design was modified to include a new insert at the source tip. Current study objectives were to establish an accurate source model for simulation purposes, dosimetrically characterize the new source and obtain its TG-43 brachytherapy dosimetry parameters, and determine dose differences between the original simulation model and the current model S700 source design. Design information from measurements of dissected model S700 sources and from vendor-supplied CAD drawings was used to aid establishment of an updated Monte Carlo source model, which included the complex-shaped plastic source-centering insert intended to promote water flow for cooling the source anode. These data were used to create a model for subsequent radiation transport simulations in a water phantom. Compared to the 2006 simulation geometry, the influence of volume averaging close to the source was substantially reduced. A track-length estimator was used to evaluate collision kerma as a function of radial distance and polar angle for determination of TG-43 dosimetry parameters. Results for the 50 kV source were determined every 0.1 cm from 0.3 to 15 cm and every 1° from 0° to 180°. Photon spectra in water with 0.1 keV resolution were also obtained from 0.5 to 15 cm and polar angles from 0° to 165°. Simulations were run for 10(10) histories, resulting in statistical uncertainties on the transverse plane of 0.04% at r = 1 cm and 0.06% at r = 5 cm. The dose-rate distribution ratio for the model S700 source as compared to the 2006 model exceeded unity by more than 5% for roughly one quarter of the solid angle surrounding the source, i.e., θ ≥ 120°. The radial dose function diminished in a similar manner as for an (125)I seed, with values of 1.434, 0.636, 0.283, and 0.0975 at 0.5, 2, 5, and 10 cm, respectively. The radial dose function ratio between the current and the 2006 model had a minimum of 0.980 at 0.4 cm, close to the source sheath and for large distances approached 1.014. 2D anisotropy function ratios were close to unity for 50° ≤ θ ≤ 110°, but exceeded 5% for θ < 40° at close distances to the sheath and exceeded 15% for θ > 140°, even at large distances. Photon energy fluence of the updated model as compared to the 2006 model showed a decrease in output with increasing distance; this effect was pronounced at the lowest energies. A decrease in photon fluence with increase in polar angle was also observed and was attributed to the silver epoxy component. Changes in source design influenced the overall dose rate and distribution by more than 2% in several regions. This discrepancy is greater than the dose calculation acceptance criteria as recommended in the AAPM TG-56 report. The effect of the design change on the TG-43 parameters would likely not result in dose differences outside of patient applicators. Adoption of this new dataset is suggested for accurate depiction of model S700 source dose distributions.