Rape Myth Acceptance Research Articles

Predictors of Trauma-Related Self-Blame in Male Survivors of Sexual Violence

ABSTRACT Survivors of adult sexual assault and child sexual abuse – together encompassing sexual violence (SV) – experience a number of adverse consequences. High rates of self-blame can lead to increased symptomatology and treatment resistance. There has been a paucity of studies of men who have experienced SV, particularly about self-blame. For this study, 179 cisgender male survivors of SV completed an online survey to explore the relationships among 10 variables, including trauma-related self-blame, rape myth acceptance, tonic immobility, disclosure experiences, sexual arousal, and substance use. Multiple regression analyses and t-tests were used to test the study hypotheses. Results indicate that 93% of the sample reported some level of self-blame. However, only rape myth acceptance was strongly associated with self-blame. Additionally, participants who used substances within 12 hours prior to their SV had higher rates of self-blame, as did participants who had not previously disclosed their abuse. Exploratory analyses also found a significant difference in self-blame between those who experienced SV in childhood and adulthood versus those who only experienced SV in either childhood or adulthood. The findings of this research highlight the high rates of self-blame and how imperative it is to provide psychoeducation about the variables discussed in this study and to normalize these experiences, especially for less well-known phenomena such as physiological sexual arousal and TI.

Prior Sexual Aggression as a Moderator of an Integrated Alcohol and Sexual Assault Prevention Program for Heavy Drinking College Men: A Brief Report.

Sexual aggression and heavy drinking are interrelated concerns among college men. As a result, integrated prevention interventions now exist to address co-occurring risk for sexual aggression and heavy drinking. The Sexual Assault and Alcohol Feedback and Education (SAFE) program is a multi-session integrated alcohol and sexual assault prevention program for college men that addresses alcohol use, sexual activity, social norms, alcohol-related sexual consequences, understanding of consent, and engagement in bystander intervention. Given that prior sexual aggression is a risk factor for subsequent perpetration of sexual aggression, the present study examined whether the effect of SAFE on a range of outcomes (rape myth acceptance, hypergender ideology, labeling of consent, and bystander intervention intentions) depended on men's baseline history of perpetration. Participants in the study were heavy drinking college men (N = 115) randomly assigned to SAFE or a mindfulness-based control condition, and who completed follow-ups at two and six months. Data were analyzed using multilevel modeling. Degree of prior sexual aggression significantly moderated effects of SAFE on change in intentions to intervene, as well as rape myth acceptance, between baseline and six months. As baseline perpetration decreased, those receiving SAFE significantly increased bystander intervention intentions more so than the control group. As baseline perpetration increased, those receiving SAFE significantly increased rape myth acceptance more so than the control group. Findings emphasize the importance of continued examination of who benefits from integrated alcohol and sexual assault prevention programs.

The Role of Personality, Just World Beliefs, and Rape Myth Acceptance on Sexual Violence Bystander Intentions

ABSTRACT Socioecological models of bystander intervention suggest that a complex decision-making process is required for a prosocial bystander to intervene, starting with intrapersonal variables of cognition and personality. This study investigates how rape myth acceptance, personality, and just world beliefs impact the frequency of positive bystander intention. The study’s sample size consisted of 139 college students. Participants completed an online survey in which they read a vignette and indicated whether they would intervene as a bystander at 25 different instances throughout the vignette. Correlational analyses showed that agreeableness and openness were positively associated with prosocial bystander behavioral intention. A multiple regression analysis found only the belief that the world was a safe and good place was predictive of prosocial bystander behavioral intention. The results suggest that bystander intervention education programs should be revised to address just world beliefs.

“You Did It to Yourself”: An Exploratory Study of Myths About Gender-Based Technology-Facilitated Violence and Abuse Among Men

Gender-based technology-facilitated violence and abuse (GBTFVA) is a common experience for those engaging with digital technologies in their everyday lives. To better understand why GBTFVA persists, it is necessary to understand the false beliefs and cultural narratives that enable and sustain them. Drawing on the literature on rape myths, this paper explores the prevalence of seven gender-based online violence myths among Canadian men. To achieve this, we adapted the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance (IRMA) (Payne et al., in J Research in Personality 33:27–68, 1999) to assess GBTFVA, and surveyed 1,297 Canadian men between 18 and 30 years old on their GBTFVA beliefs. Our results show that GBTFVA myths and cultural narratives are prevalent across participants, though endorsement levels vary. Four myths were more strongly endorsed: It Wasn’t Really Gender-Based Online Abuse, He Didn’t Mean To, Gender-Based Online Abuse Is a Deviant Event, and She Lied. Overall, these findings help to name and thus begin to address the narratives that sustain and perpetuate gender-based online violence.

An exploration of the rape myths effect on the #MeToo movement acceptance in the UK

In the last few years, the global community witnessed the rise of the #MeToo movement followed by its later backlash. Aiming to get a better understanding of the movement, this study explored how rape myths might be associated with the acceptance of the #metoo movement. Through an online survey, 76 participants from the UK, aged between 18 and 60, responded to the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale (IRMAS)–Revised and a short questionnaire on the #MeToo movement. Results showed there was a significant relationship between rape myth acceptance and negative perceptions of the #MeToo movement. Moreover, the subcategories of the IRMAS, ‘it wasn’t really rape’ and ‘she lied’, had the biggest relationship and effect on opinions about the #MeToo movement. This might suggest that dismissal and disregard of abusive acts, linked to gender stereotypes, is associated with the resistance towards the #metoo movement.

Development of a Measure of Anti-Rape Attitudes as a Potential Protective Factor Against Rape Perpetration.

The role of attitudes toward women and sexual violence in predicting men's perpetration of rape has been well documented in the literature. While research on rape perpetration has primarily focused on identifying risk factors, the limited understanding of protective factors has hindered the development of psychometric measures to assess attitudinal protective factors. However, comprehending these protective factors is essential for a comprehensive understanding of the risk of rape perpetration and the advancement of strength-based approaches. This research describes the development of a new scale designed to measure anti-rape attitudes (ARA) in young heterosexual men. To generate the initial item pool, relevant information was gathered from sexual violence support service websites and academic literature. This item pool underwent an external expert review for further item generation and cognitive interviews for content validation. This qualitative phase was followed by four quantitative studies for item reduction and scale validation. The resulting 19-item scale demonstrates good internal consistency (Cronbach's α = .84). The ARA scale exhibits strong negative correlations with rape myth acceptance (RMA) and hostile sexism, and strong positive correlations with positive consent attitudes (PCA), supporting the scale's construct validity. We further conducted hierarchical regression analyses to test the unique relationship of ARA with those constructs while controlling for RMA. These showed that ARA have significant, unique associations with PCA and ambivalent sexism. The development of this new scale enables a more comprehensive assessment of the risk of rape perpetration and opens up new avenues for research on protective factors against rape. Ultimately, this study constitutes an important step toward fostering strength-based approaches to combat sexual violence.

Social Connections as a Protective Factor for Sexual Violence-Related Attitudes.

Endorsing problematic sexual violence-related attitudes including rape myth acceptance (RMA), hostile sexism, and disapproval of sexual consent is associated with negative outcomes, including the perpetration of sexual violence. This study examined social connections as a protective factor for sexual violence-related attitudes among a sample of 770 participants. Results indicate that in the full sample, connections to a workplace were protective for RMA and hostile sexism while family connections were protective for disapproval of sexual consent, RMA, and hostile sexism. Patterns of other social connections differed in separate models for men and women. Unexpected findings indicating that connections to a religious social group are a risk, not a protective, factor are discussed.

Does No Mean No? Situational and Dispositional Factors Influence Emerging Adult Men's Intentions to Use Assault Tactics in Response to Women's Sexual Refusal During Hookups.

Hookups can result in sexual assault when men do not listen to requests from women to stop. It is thus important to identify factors that influence men's decisions to override direct refusals in these situations. Presently, we administered first-person vignettes depicting a prototypical hookup wherein the woman refuses the man's attempt to escalate intimacy. Using a national sample of emerging adult men (N = 420), we found that they on average did not completely rule out coercive or forcible tactics, but those elevated on rape myth acceptance, hypermasculinity, and psychopathy were uniquely at risk of assault when controlling for several other traits known to correlate with rape. Participants also reported being likelier to use coercive sexual practices when refusals occurred at higher levels of sexual intimacy already attained. Notably, diagnostic analyses revealed that a subset of men had a disproportionate influence on the regression estimates, and that these men were not only elevated across a range of assault-relevant traits, but also endorsed higher likelihoods of using coercion and force in the face of female sexual refusal. Although removal of these cases did not substantively alter the results, exploratory analyses revealed that these individuals responded differently to situational factors in ways that suggested sexual opportunism. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

How men view stigma, shame, and blame in #MeToo

AbstractObjectiveThis study examined how men respond to #MeToo scenarios alongside perceptions of rape myths and gender equity. It examined social media post reactions of stigma, shame, fear repercussions, victim blaming, truth telling, and real assault belief.MethodsThe sample of 407 male survey participants responded to closed‐ and open‐ended questions in MTurk. Men responded to three #MeToo posts copied from Twitter, which included statements of sexual harassment and assault, to measure perceptions of stigmatization, shame, and victim blame. Variables also measured rape myth acceptance, gender equity ideals, and demographic variables such as race, ethnicity, employment, and relationship status.ResultsThe study demonstrated most men ascribed to rape myths and rape culture in their beliefs, but these beliefs usually did not lead directly to their written responses. The quantitative data showed men who accept rape myths also perceive victims as earning outcomes of shame, stigma, and blame. The qualitative data demonstrated most men supported victims’ posts sharing their #MeToo stories with few harmful, stigmatizing responses.ConclusionMen hold beliefs that might not lead to direct behaviors in responding to #MeToo posts. Additional research must be completed using other survey platforms to gain the male response to victim story sharing.

“We Can’t Work With Them, We Can’t Work Without Them”: The Police-Victim Advocacy Nexus in Processing Sexual Offenses in the Nigerian Justice System

Previous studies posited that survivors of rape receive better treatment from the police when advocates are involved and the police embrace collaboration. However, the collaborative relationship between the Nigerian police and rape victim advocates has yet to receive scholarly attention. To address this, a qualitative study was conducted, with 24 police officers of sexual offense units in six Police Commands, and 50 rape victim advocates from 28 advocacy groups. A thematic analysis of the narratives was carried out. Findings indicated problematic police-advocate collaboration in the process of reporting, interviewing, investigating, and prosecuting rape cases. Advocates stated that officers exhibited rape myth acceptance. Officers stated that advocates often display aggressive approaches in interfering with interviews, are ignorant of police procedures, and often wrongly accuse officers of corrupt practices. These findings have important practical, policy, and further research implications if criminal justice efficiencies and ideal victim support services are to be achieved.

Development of the Japanese Version of the Rape Excusing Attitudes and Language Scale and Comparison Between Rape Myth Acceptance in Japan and the U.S.

Rape myth acceptance (RMA) is the acceptance of false beliefs, stereotypes, and statements about rape victims, perpetrators, and the act itself. RMA positively predicts shame felt by victims and negatively predicts reports of sexual victimization. Knowledge about sexual violence changes over time; accordingly, psychometric scales measuring RMA should be updated. Hahnel-Peeters and Goetz developed the Rape Excusing Attitudes and Language (REAL) scale by updating the Illinois RMA Scale-a major instrument used in the United States. However, the REAL scale is not available in Japanese. Therefore, we developed and validated a Japanese version of the REAL scale, evaluated RMA in Japanese individuals (N = 1,000), and compared the Japanese participants' RMA levels with the mean participant scores from Hahnel-Peeters and Goetz. In collaboration with one of the original authors, the Japanese version was developed through a back-translation process and administered to 1,000 men and women aged between 18 and 65; exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted on the data collected. The confirmatory factor analysis showed that the Japanese version moderately fitted the 4-factor structure of the original REAL scale. However, a 2-factor form obtained in the exploratory factor analysis best fit the data. Consistent with the original version, the Japanese version showed higher RMA in men than in women. The young generation (18-29 years old) self-reported higher RMA than other generations. Japan's RMA was significantly higher than that of the U.S. sample. The Japanese version of the REAL scale can be used in future studies to assess RMA in Japanese individuals and develop suitable educational programs to reduce RMA.

Evidence That Pervasive Body Gaze Behavior in Heterosexual Men Is a Social Marker for Implicit, Physiological, and Explicit Sexual Assault Propensities.

Deliberate and effortful attempts to gaze at the bodies of women is emerging as a valuable marker of sexual objectification in men. Some preliminary evidence suggests that pervasive body gaze behavior may also accompany insidious attitudes which can facilitate sexual assault. The present study aimed to further explore this potential by examining pervasive body gaze associations with explicit, implicit, and physiological sexual assault propensity measures. We presented 110 heterosexual male participants with images of fully and partially dressed women with and without injuries while measuring their skin conductance responses. We also captured implicit and explicit sexual assault measures in addition to self-reported pervasive body gaze behavior. Pervasive body gaze behavior was significantly correlated with rape myth acceptance attitudes, prior perpetration of sexual assault, a stronger implicit association between erotica and aggression, and lower physiological reactivity during exposure to partially dressed injured women. These findings suggest that body gaze towards women could be a behavioral marker for inclinations to victim blame, preferences for rough sexual conduct, and a physiological desensitization towards female victims. This study further validates a five item self-reported body gaze measure as a valuable tool for detecting deviant sexual objectification attitudes and affective states. As such, measurement and observation of body gaze behavior could be useful for developing risk assessments, estimating intervention efficacy, and enhancing public awareness.

Evaluation of the Define It! Program for Raising Critically Conscious Bystander Behaviors.

Across two studies with cohorts of undergraduate students who previously completed a bystander intervention program, a consciousness-raising intervention called Define It! was evaluated for its efficacy in increasing critically conscious intentions. Data were collected pre, post, and one-month using the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale (IRMAS-SF; Payne et al., 1999) and Critically Conscious Bystander Scale (CCBS; Johnson et al., 2019). Following recommendations for novel intervention research by Rounsaville et al., we present our findings across two studies. Study 1 demonstrated that the program was feasible, acceptable, and specified the CCBS as an adequate measure of change. Study 2, (n = 38) randomly assigned student participants to control or intervention groups. Results demonstrated significant increases on CBBS for intervention participants compared to the control.

Rape Myths and Verdict Systems: What Is Influencing Conviction Rates in Rape Trials in Scotland?

The Scottish verdict system includes three verdicts: 'guilty', 'not guilty' and 'not proven'. Politicians propose that the three-verdict system is partially to blame for the low conviction rate of rape, whereas research suggests that rape myths may be having a larger impact. To test the effects of varying verdict systems (guilty, not guilty and not proven; guilty and not guilty; a series of proven and not proven verdicts) and rape myths on juror verdicts. A total of 180 participants answered questions regarding their acceptance of rape myths using the Acceptance of Modern Myth and Sexual Aggression (AMMSA) scale. They then watched a staged rape trial filmed in a real courtroom and reached a verdict. Participants also provided longer-form answers on which thematical analysis was conducted. The main findings are as follows: (1) The special verdict system leads to a higher conviction rate than the other systems when rape myth acceptance is controlled for. (2) The higher the rape myth acceptance, the more favourably the accused was perceived and the less favourably the complainer was perceived.

Regional differences in police officer misperceptions: a quasi-experimental evaluation of sexual assault investigations training in Kentucky

ABSTRACT Our study fills an important research gap by investigating the differences in myths and misperceptions about sexual assault survivors among police officers (N = 388) and evaluating the effects of sexual assault investigations training across geographic regions. First, we assessed police officers’ pretraining rape myth acceptance and misperceptions of crime victim reporting behaviours. Second, we used a Solomon four-group quasi-experimental design to assess pretesting effects and evaluate the effect of training and jurisdiction type on officers’ adherence to rape myths and misperceptions of trauma. We used Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) models to evaluate regional differences in officers’ adherence to myths and misperceptions about survivors, the main effects of training, effects of training when considering jurisdiction type, and the moderating effects of officer jurisdiction type on training outcomes. Results showed lower pretraining scores for urban/suburban officers and significant improvements in post-training scores across geographic regions. In addition, officer jurisdiction type failed to moderate –change—the relationship between training and outcomes. This research improves our understanding of officer misperceptions regarding sexual assault survivors and the impact of specialised sexual assault training in different geographic contexts.

Truth about Rape Myths: Understanding the Effects of Sexual Violence and Date Rape Attitudes on Rape Myths Acceptance in Ghana

Purpose: Rape myths acceptance is a global phenomenon with dire consequences on how sexual assault victims are perceived and treated. People who hold strong sexual violence beliefs tend to blame the victims for their victimizations while praising the offenders. It has widely been acknowledged that such attitudes hinder crime reporting while promoting violence in society. The main purpose of the current study was to examine the factors that influence rape myths acceptance among students in Ghana. Method: Data for the study was collected from students attending one of the largest universities in the country between 2021 and 2022. Results: Our results revealed that sexual violence experience, college date rape attitudes, age, degree program, and ethnicity influenced rape myths acceptance among students. Conclusion: Based on the findings, we recommend that colleges should create a conducive environment for victims of sexual violence whereby educating students about the harmful effects of rape myths acceptance.

Relations Between Rape Myths, Ambivalent Sexism, Social Dominance Orientation, and Right-Wing Authoritarianism Across Gay and Straight Women and Men: More Similar Than Dissimilar

ABSTRACT Rape myths support and fuel cultural understandings regarding gender roles and deny the victim’s rights and strengthen those of the instigator. Little research exists examining the invariance of rape myths measures and models used to explain rape myths across gay and straight samples. Examining correlates of rape myths and determining if the pattern of relations between correlates is similar across gay and straight male and female samples provides insights into socially constant factors that are influencing rape myth acceptance. Participants (294 straight women, 282 gay women, 293 straight men, and 234 gay men) were asked to complete measures of social dominance orientation (SDO), right-wing authoritarianism (RWA), ambivalent sexism toward women, ambivalent sexism toward men, and rape myths toward women. We tested four models that highlighted significant, direct paths between SDO, RWA, and rape myth acceptance. Both hostile sexism toward women and benevolent sexism toward men demonstrated significant indirect effects between SDO, RWA, and rape myth acceptance. Benevolent sexism toward women and hostile sexism toward men demonstrated, in most samples, significant indirect effects between SDO, RWA, and rape myth acceptance. However, the strength of those relations differed for gay and heterosexual samples. This provides further understanding of rape myths as SDO, RWA, and benevolent and hostile sexism toward men and women play a role in supporting rape myth acceptance and establishes that, overall, these relations are more similar than dissimilar across straight and gay samples.

Rape myth acceptance among undergraduate students at the University of Zambia

Rape myth acceptance among undergraduate students at the University of Zambia

The Role of Complainant/Defendant Gender and Form of Sexual Assault on Jurors’ Perceptions of Prototypicality and Verdicts

We sought to test the effects of sexual assault form and complainant/defendant gender on jurors’ perceptions of the prototypicality of a sexual assault case, complainant, and defendant. We examined whether these perceived prototypicality measures predict mock jurors’ complainant/defendant blame and credibility assessments and if these assessments predict verdict decisions in a simulated sexual assault trial. We predicted that the female complainant–male defendant condition, vaginal intercourse condition, and their combination would be perceived as more prototypical than their counterparts, which would predict blame/credibility assessments, ultimately predicting verdict. Mock jurors ( N = 437) recruited via Prolific Academic read a trial transcript involving an alleged sexual assault (oral or vaginal sex forced onto the complainant) with a female complainant–male defendant or a male complainant–female defendant. They provided a verdict and assessed the perceived prototypicality of the case/complainant/defendant, provided blame/credibility assessments for the complainant/defendant, and responded to rape myth questionnaires. Sexual assault form did not significantly affect any of our outcomes. Mock jurors perceived the male complainant–female defendant condition as less prototypical of a sexual assault case/complainant/defendant than the female complainant–male defendant condition, resulting in negative evaluations of the complainant, favorable evaluations of the defendant, and lowered probability of conviction. Simultaneously, for fixed levels of prototypicality, the female complainant received more negative evaluations, and the male defendant received more favorable evaluations, which lowered the probability of conviction; mock jurors’ rape myth acceptance moderated this effect. Rape myths were predictive of decision-making in cases involving a female complainant, and male rape myths were predictive in cases involving a male complainant. Results demonstrate that prototypicality is a mechanism behind mock jurors’ decisions in sexual assault trials and elucidate the distinctive role of prototypes and rape myths on juror decision-making, with practical implications for the field of psychology and the criminal legal system.

Development of the Vietnamese Rape Myths Acceptance Scales: A Web-Based Survey of Young Adults.

Rape myths-false but widely held beliefs that serve to deny and justify sexual aggression-present a major barrier to reporting and prevention of sexual violence in Vietnam and globally. Based on a parent study aimed at reducing sexual violence at two universities in Hanoi, we developed and assessed a contextualized measure of rape myths among young people in Vietnam. Items from previously validated rape myth acceptance (RMA) scales and data from qualitative research informed the development of 50 items, which were administered to Vietnamese 18-24-year-olds (n = 2,756 total, n = 1,798 cisgender women) via an anonymous link in February 2021. We used factor analysis to explore and test factor structure and multi-group factor analysis to assess measurement equivalence across gender. We calculated item-level discrimination and difficulty parameters and visualized information curves using item response theory analysis, informing the development of a short form. Four hypothesized subconstructs identified in the qualitative data emerged as factors: (1) "He didn't mean to"; (2) "She asked for it"; (3) "It wasn't really rape"; and (4) "Rape is a deviant event." A fifth factor, "She didn't protect herself," included four items from formative data. Confirming formative findings and prior literature, cisgender women had lower RMA than cisgender men, particularly on items related to victim-blaming. The Vietnamese Rape Myths Acceptance Scales were internally consistent and equivalent between cisgender men and women, capturing elements specific to the Vietnamese context and providing a tool for campus climate surveys and evaluations of sexual violence prevention programs.