Berry Abundance Research Articles

Extrinsic and intrinsic factors drive the timing of gestation and reproductive success of Scandinavian brown bears

IntroductionClimate change is altering the reproductive phenology of many organisms, but the factors that influence the timing of gestation in ursids are still poorly understood. Higher temperatures in spring are already causing an earlier den exit in some brown bear populations, and a temporal mismatch between hibernation and reproduction could have dramatic consequences for reproductive success. Therefore, understanding the factors that control the timing of these events is important to forecast the consequences of climate change on population growth rates.MethodsIn this study, we used abdominal temperature loggers and GPS collars with acceleration sensors on 23 free-ranging pregnant female brown bears living in two areas in Sweden (61°N and 67°N latitude) to pinpoint hibernation and reproductive events. We investigated how intrinsic and extrinsic factors influence the termination of embryonic diapause and parturition, as well as their impact on reproductive success.ResultsThe termination of embryonic diapause was later in the northern area compared to the southern area and occurred earlier when ambient temperature at den entry was higher in both areas. In the southern area, young adults (i.e., females = 7 years old) had a delayed parturition when bilberry abundance was low the year of mating. Additionally, young adults had a lower reproductive success than adults and their probability to reproduce successfully was dependent on bilberry abundance, whereas adult females were not affected by this parameter.DiscussionAs den exit occurs later in the northern study area, we suggest that a later parturition might ensure that females lactate their cubs in the den for a reasonable amount of time while fasting. Similarly, a later parturition combined with an earlier emergence could allow young adults to spend less time in the den lactating if they could not reach an optimal body condition prior to hibernation. But as a result, their cubs are younger and more vulnerable when they leave the den leading to lower survival rates. Our results suggest that a decreased berry abundance in the fall could impact the reproductive and hibernation phenology of Scandinavian brown bear females and lead to a lower cub survival with potential consequences on the population dynamics.

Patterns of pollen and resource limitation of fruit production in Vaccinium uliginosum and V. vitis-idaea in Interior Alaska.

Many recent studies assessing fruit productivity of plants in the boreal forest focus on interannual variability across a forested region, rather than on environmental variability within the forest. Frequency and severity of wildfires in the boreal forest affect soil moisture, canopy, and community structure at the landscape level, all of which may influence overall fruit production at a site directly or indirectly. We evaluated how fruit production in two boreal shrubs, Vaccinium uliginosum (blueberry) and V. vitis-idaea (lingonberry), was explained by factors associated with resource availability (such as canopy cover and soil conditions) and pollen limitation (such as floral resources for pollinators and pollen deposition) across boreal forest sites of Interior Alaska in 2017. We classified our study sites into upland and lowland sites, which differed in elevation, soil moisture, and active layer. We found that resource and pollen limitation differed between the two species and between uplands and lowlands. Lingonberry was more pollen limited than blueberry, and plants in lowland sites were more pollen limited relative to other sites while plants in upland sites were relatively more resource limited. Additionally, canopy cover had a significant negative effect in upland sites on a ramet's investment in reproductive tissues and leaves versus structural growth, but little effect in lowland sites. These results point to importance of including pollinator service as well as resource availability in predictions for changes in berry abundance.

Long-term standardized forest phenology in Sweden: a climate change indicator

Because climate change alters patterns of vegetative growth, long-term phenological measurements and observations can provide important data for analyzing its impact. Phenological assessments are usually made as records of calendar dates when specific phase changes occur. Such assessments have benefits and are used in Citizen Science monitoring. However, these kinds of data often have low statistical precision when describing gradual changes. Frequent monitoring of the phenological traits of forest trees and berries as they undergo gradual change is needed to acquire good temporal resolution of transitions relative to other factors, such as susceptibility to frosts, insects, and fungi, and the use of berries as a food resource. Intensive weekly monitoring of the growth of apical and branch buds and the elongation of shoots and leaves on four tree species, and the abundance of flowers and berries of bilberry and lingonberry, has been performed in Sweden since 2006. Here, we present quantitative methods for interpolating such data, which detail the gradual changes between assessments in order to describe average rates of development and amount of interannual variation. Our analysis has shown the active growth period of trees to differ with latitude. We also observed a change in the timing of the maximum numbers of ripening berries and their successive decline. Data from tree phenology assessments can be used to recommend best forestry practice and to model tree growth, while berry data can be used to estimate when food resources for animals are most available.

Sea buckthorn berries Hippophae rhamnoides L. predict size and composition of a great tit population Parus major L

In seasonal environments variation in food abundance in the non‐breeding season is thought to affect songbird population dynamics. In a unique tit‐sea buckthorn berry system we can estimate the berry abundance and both the tit consumption and population dynamics. Six hundred nest boxes were available to great and blue tits Cyanistes caeruleus for breeding in spring and roosting in winter. We followed the dynamics including the recapture histories of individually marked great tits from 2008 to 2014. In each year we estimated 1) the winter sea buckthorn berry availability, 2) an index of berry consumption in December based on the colour of the faeces of roosting birds, 3) the number of breeding great and blue tits, 4) both recapture probability and the return rate of the great tits and 5) immigration rates. December berry abundance positively predicted the number of breeding pairs of both species in the subsequent season and great tit return rates in the second half of the winter. There was support for a sex specific berry effect on the adult return rate in the great tit: female return rate was associated less strongly to berry abundance than male return rate. This skewed the sex ratio of the local breeders in the following breeding season. Intriguingly, annual berry consumption in December was not related to berry abundance, and individuals consuming more berries tended to have slightly lower return rates. Reproductive rate was not related to berry abundance. There was hardly support for a relation between immigration rates of first year breeders and berry abundance. Taken together these results imply that berry stock not only affected population size but also the population composition through sex specific exchange with the surroundings. Since population density covaried with berry abundance, density dependent effects provide an alternative explanation for the patterns observed.

Stories with deep roots: Cultivating community–university relationships to facilitate the creation of Gwa’sala-’Nakwaxda’xw children’s stories

Bak'wamk'ala is a language spoken on north-eastern Vancouver Island and on the islands and along coastal waterways nearby. One of the joys of life in these territories is the abundance of delicious berries that ripen throughout the summer: ťsagał (‘thimbleberries’), k'amdzakw (‘salmonberries’), gwadam (‘huckleberries’), ʼnak'wał (‘salalberries’) and more. Kwakwaka'wakw culture includes a long tradition of knowledge and technologies related to berry-picking: special baskets, protocols for picking, songs and stories. Children accompany their parents while berry-picking as babies in carriers and gradually walking alongside with their own small baskets; for this reason, berry-picking is an especially suitable topic for a children’s book seeking to highlight and foreground Kwakwaka'wakw culture for Kwakwaka'wakw children (and others). We share here the text of a children’s book about picking thimbleberries by Lucy Hemphill (Gwa’sala-’Nakwaxda’xw), and a reflection written by Ms Hemphill and Daisy Rosenblum, a professor in the First Nations and Endangered Languages Program at the University of British Columbia, which describes the iterative process of including Bak'wamk'ala in the English version of the story, and planning for the Bak'wamk'ala language version of the book. Through our reflection, we discuss the choice of the story’s theme, the value of written resources created for languages with previously oral traditions and the challenges inherent in such processes of creation.

Berry production drives bottom–up effects on body mass and reproductive success in an omnivore

Obligate herbivores dominate studies of the effects of climate change on mammals, however there is limited empirical evidence for how changes in the abundance or quality of plant food affect mammalian omnivores. Omnivores can exploit a range of different food resources over the course of a year, but they often rely on seasonally restricted highly nutritious fruiting bodies during critical life stages. Brown bears Ursus arctos in Sweden are dependent on berries for fattening before entering hibernation. We used a ten‐year time series to evaluate the effect of temperature and snow on annual variation in berry abundance and how this variation affected bears. We found marked interannual variation in berry production of bilberry Vaccinium myrtillus and lingonberry V. vitis‐idaea, that we could attribute in part to temperature during plant dormancy and flowering and precipitation during fruit ripening. Both, autumn weights of female bears and spring weights of yearling bears increased linearly with bilberry abundance. When bilberry abundance was low, lightweight female bears had a lower reproductive success than females in better condition. This effect vanished when food abundance was above average, indicating that lightweight females could compensate for their initial weight during good bilberry years. Our study highlights the importance of considering individuals’ dynamic responses to variation in food availability, which leave some more vulnerable to food shortage than others. Individual life‐history heterogeneity in response to resource variation likely affects long‐term population recruitment. Our findings emphasize that Scandinavian bears can be dependent on a single food resource during a critical period of the year and are therefore less resilient to environmental change than expected for an omnivore. Future climate scenarios predict ambiguous trends for weather covariates that affected crucial stages of berry phenology, preventing a clear prognosis of how climate change may affect long‐term bilberry production.

Effects of Insect Herbivory on Bilberry Production and Removal of Berries by Frugivores.

The evolutionary purpose of a fleshy fruit is to attract seed dispersers and get the seeds dispersed by frugivorous animals. For this reason, fruits should be highly rewarding to these mutualists. However, insect herbivory can alter plant reproductive success e.g. by decreasing fruit yield or affecting the attractiveness of the fruits to mutualistic seed dispersers. Under natural conditions, we tested the effects of experimental larval-defoliation on berry ripening and consumption of a non-cultivated dwarf shrub, the bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.), which produces animal-dispersed berries with high sugar and anthocyanin concentration. Bilberry ramets with high fruit yield were most likely to have their berries foraged, indicating that frugivores made foraging choices based on the abundance of berries. Moreover, the probability for berries being foraged was the lowest for non-defoliated ramets that grew adjacent to larval-defoliated ramets, even though larval-defoliation did not affect the biochemical composition (total concentrations of anthocyanins, sugars and organic acids) or the probability of ripening of berries. We hypothesise that the lower probability for berries being foraged in these ramets may be a consequence of rhizome- or volatile-mediated communication between ramets, resulting in a priming effect of the herbivore defence and lower attractiveness of the non-defoliated ramets.

Climate and herbivore influence on Vaccinium myrtillus over the last 40 years in northwest Lapland, Finland

AbstractAnnual fluctuations in the abundance of wild berries have repercussions on animals and humans who depend on this important resource. Although studies have tried to disentangle the effect of climate and herbivores on inter‐annual berry yield, there are still many uncertainties as to which factors are driving productivity. In this research, we evaluated the effect of climate and predation by rodents and moths on the abundance of bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) flowers and berries at the Kilpisjärvi Biological Station in northwest Finnish Lapland. The data were collected from 1973 to 2014 in a forest and an alpine site, both undisturbed by human activities. This dataset is unique due to the length of the sampling period, the availability of flower, berry, and rodent abundance data as well as the undisturbed nature of the habitat. Previous summer temperatures, the abundance of rodents, and the presence of a moth outbreak were complementary factors explaining the abundance of flowers. Herbivores had a larger impact on flower production than climate, but both variables were important to understand reproductive effort. Contrary to results from experimental studies, warmer winters did not significantly influence reproductive success. The abundance of fruits was strongly correlated with pollinator activity; the forest site, with a larger pollinator network, had a higher reproductive success and spring conditions were linked to inter‐annual variability in fruit production. Our results illustrate the importance of the location of the population within the species distribution range to understand plant sensitivity to climatic fluctuations with fruit production only influenced by current‐year summer temperatures at the alpine site. Finally, we observed a general increase in flower and fruit production at the alpine site, which was driven by large yields since the early 1990s. Fruit production at the forest site was comparatively stable throughout the study period.

Bears and berries: species-specific selective foraging on a patchily distributed food resource in a human-altered landscape.

When animals are faced with extraordinary energy-consuming events, like hibernation, finding abundant, energy-rich food resources becomes particularly important. The profitability of food resources can vary spatially, depending on occurrence, quality, and local abundance. Here, we used the brown bear (Ursus arctos) as a model species to quantify selective foraging on berries in different habitats during hyperphagia in autumn prior to hibernation. During the peak berry season in August and September, we sampled berry occurrence, abundance, and sugar content, a proxy for quality, at locations selected by bears for foraging and at random locations in the landscape. The factors determining selection of berries were species specific across the different habitats. Compared to random locations, bears selected locations with a higher probability of occurrence and higher abundance of bilberries (Vaccinium myrtillus) and a higher probability of occurrence, but not abundance, of lingonberries (Vaccinium vitis-idaea). Crowberries (Empetrum hermaphroditum) were least available and least used. Sugar content affected the selection of lingonberries, but not of bilberries. Abundance of bilberries at random locations decreased and abundance of lingonberries increased during fall, but bears did not adjust their foraging strategy by increasing selection for lingonberries. Forestry practices had a large effect on berry occurrence and abundance, and brown bears responded by foraging most selectively in mature forests and on clearcuts. This study shows that bears are successful in navigating human-shaped forest landscapes by using areas of higher than average berry abundance in a period when abundant food intake is particularly important to increase body mass prior to hibernation.Significance statementFood resources heterogeneity, caused by spatial and temporal variation of specific foods, poses a challenge to foragers, particularly when faced with extraordinary energy-demanding events, like hibernation. Brown bears in Sweden inhabit a landscape shaped by forestry practices. Bilberries and lingonberries, the bears’ main food resources in autumn prior to hibernation, show different temporal and habitat-specific ripening patterns. We quantified the bears’ selective foraging on these berry species on clearcuts, bogs, young, and mature forests compared to random locations. Despite a temporal decline of ripe bilberries, bears used locations with a greater occurrence and abundance of bilberries, but not lingonberries. We conclude that bears successfully navigated in this heavily human-shaped landscape by selectively foraging in high-return habitats for bilberries, but did not compensate for the decline in bilberries by eating more lingonberries.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00265-016-2106-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

How are your berries? Perspectives of Alaska's environmental managers on trends in wild berry abundance

BackgroundWild berries are a valued traditional food in Alaska. Phytochemicals in wild berries may contribute to the prevention of vascular disease, cancer and cognitive decline, making berry consumption important to community health in rural areas. Little was known regarding which species of berries were important to Alaskan communities, the number of species typically picked in communities and whether recent environmental change has affected berry abundance or quality.ObjectiveTo identify species of wild berries that were consumed by people in different ecological regions of Alaska and to determine if perceived berry abundance was changing for some species or in some regions.DesignWe asked tribal environmental managers throughout Alaska for their views on which among 12 types of wild berries were important to their communities and whether berry harvests over the past decade were different than in previous years. We received responses from 96 individuals in 73 communities.ResultsBerries that were considered very important to communities differed among ecological regions of Alaska. Low-bush blueberry (Vaccinium uliginosum and V. caespitosum), cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus) and salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis) were most frequently identified as very important berries for communities in the boreal, polar and maritime ecoregions, respectively. For 7 of the 12 berries on the survey, a majority of respondents indicated that in the past decade abundance had either declined or become more variable.ConclusionsOur study is an example of how environmental managers and participants in local observer networks can report on the status of wild resources in rural Alaska. Their observations suggest that there have been changes in the productivity of some wild berries in the past decade, resulting in greater uncertainty among communities regarding the security of berry harvests. Monitoring and experimental studies are needed to determine how environmental change may affect berry abundance.

Combined use of mark-recapture and genetic analyses reveals response of a black bear population to changes in food productivity

We used mark-recapture analysis to investigate the dynamics of a black bear (Ursus americanus) population in northern Idaho where food availability varies seasonally and annually. We conducted noninvasive genetic sampling (NGS) during 2003–2006 in the Purcell Mountains of Idaho to collect black bear DNA samples for individual identification of bears. We used a combination of both mark-recapture and genetic analyses to evaluate whether variation in vital rates and genetic substructure was a function of changing food productivity in the study area. We found a heterozygote deficiency and detected genetic substructure within a single year, suggesting we sampled multiple subpopulations (a Wahlund effect). Our mark-recapture analyses suggested this pattern was in response to interannual variation in summer berry abundance. This project demonstrated the potential pitfalls of interpreting mark-recapture data over short time periods without ancillary data that can be used to evaluate mechanisms of population change. We found NGS provided information not only for traditional mark-recapture analysis but also complimentary insights into demography gained through genetic analyses. Combining mark-recapture estimates with analyses of population genetics provides a more complete understanding of population dynamics than either method alone, thus improving ecological inferences and effective management. Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

Response of cackling geese (Branta hutchinsii taverneri) to spatial and temporal variation in the production of crowberries on the Alaska Peninsula

Arctic geese often feed on berries during premigratory fattening. We hypothesized that during autumn staging on the Alaska Peninsula, the distribution of Taverner’s cackling geese (Branta hutchinsii taverneri) would be correlated with spatial variation in crowberry (Empetrum nigrum) abundance. We also predicted that daily rates of fat increase among cackling geese would be higher in years when crowberries were abundant, compared to years when the crowberry crop was poor. Apparent distribution of geese based on fecal densities mirrored patterns of berry abundance, with areas that had highest densities of crowberries being used most heavily by geese. In areas where apparent use was greatest, geese consumed approximately 30 % of the berry crop between early September and mid-October. From 1999 to 2002, annual mean crowberry density in early September ranged from 205 berries m−2 (1999) to 12 berries m−2 (2002). Daily rates of lipid increase averaged 7.6 g day−1 for juvenile and 11.4 g−1 day for adult cackling geese and did not differ among years despite a >90 % difference in annual berry abundance. Although cackling geese used areas with higher densities of berries and apparently consumed a relatively large percentage of the crowberry crop, we could not detect an effect of annual variation in berry abundance on rates of fattening. Berries may have provided relatively little metabolizable biomass due to their high (90 %) water content. However, consumption of crowberries may provide geese with other physiological benefits such as water for osmoregulation or antioxidants and fatty acids that contribute to metabolic performance during migration.

Enhanced UV-B and elevated CO(2) impacts sub-arctic shrub berry abundance, quality and seed germination.

This study investigated the effects of long-term-enhanced UV-B, and combined UV-B with elevated CO(2) on dwarf shrub berry characteristics in a sub-arctic heath community. Germination of Vaccinium myrtillus was enhanced in seeds produced at elevated UV-B, but seed numbers and berry size were unaffected. Elevated UV-B and CO(2) stimulated the abundance of V. myrtillus berries, whilst UV-B alone stimulated the berry abundance of V. vitis-idaea and Empetrum hermaphroditum. Enhanced UV-B reduced concentrations of several polyphenolics in V. myrtillus berries, whilst elevated CO(2) increased quercetin glycosides in V. myrtillus, and syringetin glycosides and anthocyanins in E. hermaphroditum berries. UV-B×CO(2) interactions were found for total anthocyanins, delphinidin-3-hexoside and peonidin-3-pentosidein in V. myrtillus berries but not E. hermaphroditum. Results suggest positive impacts of UV-B on the germination of V. myrtillus and species-specific impacts of UV-B×elevated CO(2) on berry abundance and quality. The findings have relevance and implications for human and animal consumers plus seed dispersal and seedling establishment.

Long-term effects of hedgerow management policies on resource provision for wildlife

Hedgerows provide important habitat and food resources for overwintering birds, mammals and invertebrates. Currently, 41% of managed hedgerow length in England forms part of three Agri-Environment Scheme (AES) options, which specify a reduction in hedgerow cutting frequency from the most common practice of annual cutting. These AES options aim to increase the availability of flowers and berries for wildlife, but there has been little rigorous testing of their efficacy or estimates of the magnitude of their effects. We conducted a factorial experiment on hawthorn hedges to test the effects of (i) cutting frequency (every 1, 2 or 3years) and (ii) timing of cutting (autumn vs. winter) on the abundance of flowers and berry resources. Results from 5years show that hedgerow cutting reduced the number of flowers by up to 75% and the biomass of berries available over winter by up to 83% compared to monitored uncut hedges. Reducing cutting frequency from every year to every 3years resulted in 2.1 times more flowers and a 3.4 times greater berry mass over 5years. Cutting every 2years had an intermediate effect on flower and berry abundance, but the increase in biomass of berries depended on cutting in winter rather than autumn. The most popular AES option is cutting every 2years (32% of English managed hedgerow length). If these hedges were managed under a 3year cutting regime instead, we estimate that biomass of berries would increase by about 40%, resulting in a substantial benefit for wildlife.

Green Beans, Green Cash: Alderman Farms' Post—World War II Teenage Workforce

 OHQ vol. 111, no. 3 When my parents sold their North Dakota dairy in 1947 and moved our family to Oregon, they were awestruck by the abundance of fresh fruits, berries, and vegetables. My father spent his first two days in the state picking cherries, mostly for the sheer joy of fresh fruit off the tree. It seemed to be everywhere, and we were certainly not in North Dakota any longer. A summer later, at the age of twelve, I was introduced to the cornucopia — on the business end of a strawberry carrier and a bean bucket. For a decade, my summer home was the sprawling Alderman Farms near Dayton, one of the nation’s largest row-crop operations — certainly the largest in theWillametteValley — and I grew up amidst beans, berries, and companions of youth.1 Tens of thousands of young Oregonians shared my experience, at large farms such as Alderman’s and small neighborhood berry patches; it was how we spent our summers, long before the advent of summer ballet and soccer camps or trips to Europe or Disneyland. Alderman Farms’ summer workforce was larger than the population of the nearest town, Dayton, drawing workers from as far away asVancouver and Portland, Depoe Bay and Taft.2 The heart of the picking crew and its support workers was Yamhill County and the county seat of McMinnville, where I grew up and graduated from high school and college. For a generation of young people, Alderman’s was an extension of our school year. We started berries when school closed in June and started school when beans ended in September, and our baseball games, evenings “dragging the gut” of Main Street, and trips to the beach all worked around the crop seasons. Alderman’s was virtually selfsufficient , with a freezing plant, equipment-repair sheds, cafeteria, sawmill,helicopter,Texacostation,and 75,000-gallon water tower. The farm Green Beans, Green Cash© 2010 Oregon Historical Society oregon voices Alderman Farms’ Post–World War II Teenage Workforce by Floyd J. McKay  McKay, Alderman Farms’ Post–World War II Teenage Workforce hired upwards of 300 year-around workers, but the big push during the summer—whenlabor-intensiveberry and bean crops came in — attracted pickers by the thousands. The scale of the Alderman operation was unique in the valley, but what went on at the ground level (literally) was typical of the workplace for tens of thousands of young laborers in the 1950s. Teenagers from Portland to Eugene shared the experience, and it remains a bond for thousands of retirees who grew up in that era. Young people had worked on farms for centuries,primarily for their families or, at most, nearby neighbors. But the Second World War forced farmers to hire outside the traditional work force (which had gone off to war),and that search took farmers into cities and towns where there was an untapped source of labor in housewives and teenage children. Wartime officials plunged into the task of recruitment; at the federal level, a U.S. Crop Corps was created, with a Victory Farm Workers organization for young workers and a Women’s Land Army for women. In Oregon, the Extension Service operated by Oregon State College was the major organizer and promoter of hiring women and teens to work on the farms.3 Alderman Farms was a community in itself, employing about 300 year-around workers and up to 3,000 a day during bean season. When Urie Alderman threw his annual barbecue in the 1940s, thousands of regular employees, neighbors, local merchants, and politicians were on hand. According to the newspaper caption, this 1945 gathering devoured four fatted steers, 4,500 buns, five barrels of corn on the cob, and 800 pounds of snap peas. The picnic followed the end of the bean harvest, closing the intensive summer harvest season for area teenagers.© 1945 the Oregonian. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission. OHS neg. no. bb009908  OHQ vol. 111, no. 3 At the time Japanese forces attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, Urie Alderman was forty-three years old and only two years into full-time ownership and management of the farm that his father, Ennis, started on Wallace...

Alaskan wild berry resources and human health under the cloud of climate change.

Wild berries are integral dietary components for Alaska Native people and a rich source of polyphenolic metabolites that can ameliorate metabolic disorders such as obesity and diabetes. In this study, five species of wild Alaskan berries (Vaccinium ovalifolium , Vaccinium uliginosum , Rubus chamaemorus , Rubus spectabilis , and Empetrum nigrum) were screened for bioactivity through a community-participatory research method involving three geographically distinct tribal communities. Compositional analysis by HPLC and LC-MS(2) revealed substantial site-specific variation in anthocyanins (0.01-4.39 mg/g of FW) and proanthocyanidins (0.74-6.25 mg/g of FW) and identified A-type proanthocyanidin polymers. R. spectabilis increased expression levels of preadipocyte factor 1 (182%), and proanthocyanidin-enriched fractions from other species reduced lipid accumulation in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Selected extracts reduced serum glucose levels in C57BL/6J mice by up to 45%. Local observations provided robust insights into effects of climatic fluctuations on berry abundance and quality, and preliminary site-specific compositional and bioactivity differences were noted, suggesting the need to monitor this Alaska Native resource as climate shifts affect the region.

Observations on the morphology and development of star flowers ofVitis viniferaL. cvs Chardonnay and Shiraz

Background and Aims: Following our original discovery of star flowers on grapevines in Australia, further variants of the star flower phenotype have been discovered on other varieties in South Australia. The objective of this report was to describe star flowers on Vitis vinifera L. cvs Chardonnay and Shiraz. Methods and Results: Field and microscopic observations revealed that star flowers on both varieties opened precociously; there was neither pollen nor pollen tubes on the stigmas of the star flowers, and both Chardonnay and Shiraz star flowers contained aberrant ovules. The Chardonnay vines with star flowers produced bunches with an abundance of seedless berries; however, star flowers on Shiraz vines did not develop into berries. Conclusions: The inability of the Shiraz star flowers to develop into berries suggests that either there are two different mutations affecting these two varieties, or else the difference lies in their contrasting parthenocarpic tendencies. Significance of the Study: The star flower variants described here and previously may be the result of deviations to the normal molecular pathway for flower development in Vitis species. The identification of star flowers on numerous varieties and in several different regions suggests that the occurrence of star flowers may be more widespread than previously realised, and the association of star flowers with the production of seedless berries and poor fruitset suggests that star flowers may also play a significant role in the problem of poor fruitset.

Growth patterns of Carolina wolfberry (Lycium carolinianum L.) in the salt marshes of Aransas National Wildlife Refuge, Texas, USA

The coastal salt marshes of the Aransas National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR), Texas, USA support a wintering population of the endangered Whooping Crane (Grus americana). Although the bulk of their winter diet is comprised of blue crabs, berries from the Carolina wolfberry (Lycium carolinianum) can contribute 21-52% of crane energy intake early in the wintering period. Monthly, from November 2003 to February 2005, we tracked L. carolinianum growth in nine 1-m 2 permanent macrophyte plots along the estuarine gradient to understand the spatial and temporal variability of this perennial halophyte. Lycium carolinianum showed strong seasonal growth patterns, with leaf production peaks in late winter and again in late summer, just prior to flowering, but little significant spatial variation. Flowering of L. carolinianum occurred in October and November, and peak berry abundance coincided with the arrival of the cranes in late October and early November. During this period, the total number of flowers per plant and total number of leaves per plant across all sites were positively related to surface- water depth and pore-water salinity. The numbers of flowers and berries per plant were significantly higher at our lowest elevation site during the 2004 fruiting season. Berries were rarely observed in the marshes for the remainder of each calendar year. Stem diameter was the best estimator of L. carolinianum aboveground biomass in ANWR marshes, accounting for approximately 94% of the variability (p , 0.001). Monthly changes in estimated aboveground biomass at each site revealed no distinguishable spatio-temporal trends. This is likely a result of L. carolinianum's woody stem, which accounts for much of the total plant biomass but is much less dynamic than photosynthetic and reproductive tissues.

Influence of phenology on site selection by female American black bears in coastal British Columbia

We examined factors that affect site selection by female American black bears (Ursus americanus) in coastal British Columbia, Canada, 1992-95. We monitored 9 radiocollared females and compared sites that were selected within their home ranges to those that were not selected using 1-1 matched logistic regression procedures. We used information-theoretic inference to assess the effect of 19 habitat, temporal, and spatial variables in 27 candidate models to explain selection of sites within home ranges. The model that best explained site selection was 50 times more likely to be the best model, given the data, than the second-best model. The best model suggested that the probability that a site would be used by female black bears increased with increasing values of phenologically adjusted berry value interacting with light levels, phenologically adjusted succulent forage value, and forest harvesting. Probability of use decreased with increasing distance from streams dependent upon salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) availability and increasing distance from low-traffic roads. Although the best model included horizontal visibility and distance to high-traffic roads as variables, these factors had undetermined effects on the probability of use (95% confidence interval of odds ratio encompassed 1). Including phenological adjustments for abundance of berries and succulent foods greatly increased the support for the models by the data, compared to models based on cover of food plants alone. These results confirm that bears are cognizant of both temporal and spatial differences in food availability and that they modify their selection of sites based on these differences. Our results imply that site selection by female black bears involved a complex set of decisions about not only food availability, but also disturbance by humans. To increase the compatibility of timber production with conservation of black bear habitat, managers need to consider the spatial and temporal effects of the creation of food-rich openings and different types of roads on the suitability and effectiveness of habitats to support black bears.

Distribution, Abundance, and Utilization of Wild Berries by the Gwich'in People in the Mackenzie River Delta Region

This paper examines the abundance and Aboriginal use of botanical non-timber forest products in the Gwich'in Settlement Area in the Northwest Territories, Canada. Informants indicated that wild berries are important to Gwich'in diets and an important factor in culture and traditional land use. People collected mostly cloudberries (Rubus chamaemorus), blueberries (Vaccinium uliginosum), and lingonberries (Vaccinium vitis-idaea). The total quantities collected were estimated to be greater than other published accounts of berry gathering by northern Aboriginal peoples in North America. The total collected by the 450 households in the year 2000 was about 16,000 L. Inventories of wild berries on the landscape suggest that substantial quantities could be collected for commercial production, although the between-year supply can show considerable variation.