Ability Of Parasitoids Research Articles

Histone Acetylation Enhancing Host Melanization in Response to Parasitism by an Endoparasitoid Wasp.

Endoparasitoids are insects that develop within other insects, employing unique strategies to enhance their offspring's survival. They inject polydnavirus and/or venom into their hosts along with eggs, effectively suppressing the host's immune system. Polydnavirus from Braconidae and Ichneumonidae wasps can integrate into the host's genome to express viral genes using the host's transcription systems. However, the ability of parasitoids without polydnavirus to manipulate host gene expression remains unclear. Lysine acetylation (LysAc), a post-translational modification critical for gene regulation, is hypothesized to be used by endoparasitoids lacking polydnavirus. We utilized the Chalcidoidea wasp Tetrastichus brontispae, which lacks polydnavirus, as an idiobiont endoparasitoid model to test this hypothesis, with pupae of the nipa palm hispid beetle Octodonta nipae as the host. Parasitism by T. brontispae resulted in the reduced expression of histone deacetylase Rpd3 and elevated levels of LysAc modification at histones H3.3K9 and H3.3K14 through proteomics and LysAc modification omics. The knockdown of Rpd3 increased the expression level of OnPPAF1 and OnPPO involved in the phenoloxidase cascade, leading to melanization in the host body whereby it resembled a mummified parasitized pupa and ultimately causing pupa death. This study enhances our understanding of how endoparasitoids employ histone acetylation to regulate immunity-related genes, offering valuable insights into their survival strategies.

Superparasitism, immune response and optimum progeny yield in the gregarious parasitoid Palmistichus elaeisis.

The subsequent deposition of an egg clutch by a female parasitoid into a host already parasitised either by itself or a conspecific (i.e. superparasitism) is a counterintuitive adaptive strategy, particularly considering the female parasitoid's ability to recognise the parasitised hosts. Such a scenario suggests that the adaptive value of superparasitism depends on the number of clutches laid in the same host, with consequences for parasitoid progeny yield. Here, we tested whether such is the case for the gregarious parasitoid Palmistichus elaeisis and explored its underlying basis. Allowing female parasitoids to lay multiple egg clutches in a single melonworm host pupa, parasitoid progeny and fitness exhibited a peak or optimum at three egg clutches laid per host pupa. In addition, haemocyte count, encapsulation and melanisation decreased with the number of egg clutches laid per host pupa. An optimum number of three clutches laid per host pupa was detected for P. elaeisis. As immune response via haemocyte production, encapsulation and melanisation decreased with the number of clutches laid per host, the higher parasitoid yield and fitness observed is the likely consequence of a compromised immune response coupled with an accommodative (i.e. scramble) larval competitive strategy allowing enough resources for optimum balance of parasitoid number and quality produced. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Trichogrammatoidea bactrae (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae): a potential biocontrol agent of rice leaf folder

Rice leaf folder, Cnaphalocrocis medinalis is a major pest, in many rice growing areas of Sri Lanka. Biological control of this pest is encouraged due to ill effects of insecticide application on rice ecosystem. Use of egg parasitoids is advantageous over larval and pupal parasitoids, as they could destroy pests at the egg stage. Trichogrammatoidea bactrae present in rice fields in Sri Lanka, is an egg parasitoid of rice leaf folder. This study was conducted to assess the potential of T. bactrae as a biocontrol agent for the management of rice leaf folder. T. bactrae was reared on Cocyra cephalonica and its fecundity, longevity and parasitism were assessed. Acceptance of stored host eggs and parasitoid emergence from stored parasitized eggs were examined. Dispersal ability of parasitoid was also examined. T. bactrae adults showed a mean longevity of 7.9 days (range 1-15 days) and laid 55 eggs / female during first 5 days; of which, 56 % of eggs was laid on the first day. There was a significant reduction (F=5.26; df=14; 89; P Tropical Agricultural Research Vol. 26 (3): 537 - 546 (2015)

Effects of plant diversity and structural complexity on parasitoid behaviour in a field experiment

1. In natural ecosystems, plants containing hosts for parasitoids are often embedded within heterogeneous plant communities. These plant communities surrounding host‐infested plants may influence the host‐finding ability of parasitoids.2. A release‐recapture‐approach was used to examine whether the diversity and structural complexity of the community surrounding a host‐infested plant influences the aggregation behaviour of the leaf‐miner parasitoidDacnusa sibiricaTelenga and naturally occurring local leaf‐miner parasitoids. Released and locally present parasitoids were collected on pottedJacobaea vulgarisGaertn.plants infested with the generalist leaf‐minerChromatomyia syngenesiaeHardy. The plants were placed in experimentally established plant communities differing in plant diversity (1–9 species) and habitat complexity (bare ground, mown vegetation, and tall vegetation). Additionally, parasitoids were reared out from host mines on the trap plants.3. Plant diversity did not influence the mean number of recapturedD. sibiricaor captures of other locally present parasitoids but the number of recaptured parasitoids was influenced by habitat complexity. NoD. sibiricaparasitoids were recaptured in the bare ground plots or plots with mown vegetation. The mean number of recapturedD. sibiricagenerally increased with increasing complexity of the plant community, whereas locally present parasitoids were captured more frequently in communities with more bare ground. There was a unimodal relationship between the number of reared out parasitoids and diversity of the surrounding vegetation with the highest density of emerged parasitoids at intermediate diversity levels.4. The present study adds to the thus far limited body of literature examining the aggregation behaviour of parasitoids in the field and suggests that the preference of parasitoids to aggregate in complex versus simple vegetation is association specific and thus depends on the parasitoid species as well as the identity of the plant community.

Effect of nucleopolyhedrovirus infection of Spodoptera litura larvae on host discrimination by Microplitis pallidipes

The behaviour and oviposition of solitary endoparasitoid Microplitis pallidipes Szepligeti (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) were monitored to investigate the ability of the parasitoids to distinguish between nucleopolyhedrovirus (NPV)-infected and noninfected Spodoptera litura Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) larvae. The results indicated that the parasitoid searching time and the time until the first parasitoid attack on infected larvae were greater than those recorded on noninfected larvae; the number of infected larvae attacked by parasitoids, the percent of first attacks and parasitism rate in infected larvae were lower than those on noninfected larvae; and these differences were all significant 3 to 5 days postexposure of the larvae to a dose of 1.6 × 108 occlusion bodies (OB)· ml−1 and significant 4 and 5 days postexposure of the larvae to a dose of 1.6 × 107 OB·ml−1. The lowest dosage (1.6 × 106 OB·ml−1) had no significant effect on the above index values. In a field cage experiment, we found that the percentage of infected larvae parasitized by M. pallidipes gradually decreased as the time after NPV inoculation (1.6 × 108 OB·ml−1) increased, and that M. pallidipes significantly preferred to oviposit in healthy larvae from day 3 to day 5 after virus inoculation. Our research concluded that this parasitoid's ability to discriminate between healthy and infected hosts increased as virus concentration increased and as the time between exposure of hosts to virus and subsequent exposure to parasitoids increased.

Skewed attacks, stability, and host suppression

It is well known that the model equilibrium in the Nicholson-Bailey framework for parasitoid-host interactions can be stabilized if there is variation in the risk of parasitism among individual hosts. We show that the shape of the distribution of risk among hosts is crucial in determining stability. Stability for all values of the reproduction rate R of the host requires the distribution to be skewed, with a modal risk of zero. As a consequence, a distribution of risk with nonzero mode but otherwise sufficiently high variability will not stabilize the host-parasitoid equilibrium for certain values of R. We also develop a new, simple, and general criterion for stability, according to which the host-parasitoid equilibrium is stable if and only if the adult host equilibrium density increases as host reproductive rate R increases. This reinforces previous results that skewed risk of the type needed for stability reduces parasitoid efficiency and hence the parasitoid's ability to suppress the host. Finally, we identify appropriate measures that can be made in the field to relate skew in risk of parasitism to stability.

Testing the impact of laboratory reared indigenous leafroller (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) parasitoids (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae, Braconidae) on sentinel hosts in controlled orchard releases

Leafrollers can experience high levels of indigenous parasitism in organically managed apple orchards and the augmenta- tive release of specific parasitoid species to suppress these secondary pests may be advantageous in orchards converting to non- chemical pest management. Caged and uncaged releases of two ichneumonid (Apophua simplicipes (Cresson) and Glypta variegata Dasch) and two braconid (Macrocentrus linearis Nees and Apanteles polychrosidis Viereck) koinobiont endoparasitoids of the obliquebanded leafroller, Choristoneura rosaceana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) on host-infested potted apple trees were conducted to assess the parasitoids' abilities to find and successfully parasitize sentinel hosts under orchard conditions. Seasonal timing of the trials varied for each parasitoid species, based on their relative performance under simulated summer/fall conditions in laboratory tri- als. After the release of five or fifty parasitoid females, the mean percent parasitism of leafroller larvae collected from infested trees ranged from 0 to 75% depending on the parasitoid species involved. Although caged releases tended to increase the percentage of live parasitized hosts in release treatments, uncaged releases provided a more realistic assessment of the parasitoid's ability to seek and find hosts within an infested area over a longer period. Release of the large, solitary A. simplicipes, had the most significant impact on the host population density.

The effect of molecular structure on olfactory discrimination by the parasitoid Microplitis croceipes.

Flight chamber experiments were conducted to examine the capacity of the larval parasitoid Microplitis croceipes (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) to learn to distinguish between structurally related aliphatic alcohols differing in the carbon chain-length and the position of the functional group, and between an alcohol and the respective aldehyde. The parasitoid's ability to discriminate between the components depended on the chain-length of the alcohol to which they had been conditioned. Discrimination improved with increasing difference in carbon chain-length, e.g. the parasitoids made clear distinction between 1-hexanol and 1-octanol. Microplitis croceipes could also distinguish different isomers of six-carbon alcohols on the basis of the position of the alcoholic group as well as between 1-hexanol and 1-hexanal. The learning abilities of M. croceipes correspond to the specificity of antennal odour receptors towards aliphatic alcohols and aldehydes in previous electrophysiological studies of M. croceipes and other insects. Differences in perception or processing of single compounds might reflect differences of their ecological relevance.

Efficiency of vibrational sounding in the parasitoid Pimpla turionellae is affected by female size

The pupal parasitoid Pimpla (=Coccygomimus) turionellae L. (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) attacks a broad range of lepidopteran pupae. The variation in host size translates into substantial differences in size among adult parasitoids. Pimpla turionellae shows a strong host size-dependent sex allocation, which indicates that parasitoid body size influences sex-specific effects on fitness costs. We tested whether the body size of females affects their capacity to locate hosts by vibrational sounding. We investigated parasitoids from three size categories with respect to their ability to find artificial hosts (cigarette filters) in cylinders made of thin or thick paper (20 or 65g/m2, respectively). Using laser Doppler vibrometry, we measured vibration signals produced by large and medium-sized females during vibrational sounding. Large females produced vibrations of a higher intensity than, but a similar frequency to, their smaller conspecifics. The parasitoid's ability to locate a hidden host model by vibrational sounding also improved with size. This indicates that parasitoid size is an important factor in determining the female's host-searching success. We discuss the results in relation to the parasitoid's behavioural ecology.

Manipulation of fifth-instar host ( Manduca sexta) ecdysteroid levels by the parasitoid wasp Cotesia congregata

Although 5th (last) instar parasitized Manduca sexta larvae undergo developmental arrest and do not wander, they exhibit a small hemolymph ecdysteroid peak (300–400 pg/ μl) which begins one day prior to the parasitoid's molt to the 3rd (last) instar and concomitant emergence from the host. Ecdysteroids present in this peak were 20-hydroxyecdysone, 20,26-dihydroxyecdysone and one or more very polar ecdysteroids, as well as small amounts of 26-hydroxyecdysone and ecdysone. In parasitized day-1 and -2 5th instars ligated just behind the 1st abdominal proleg, hemolymph ecdysteroid levels increased in both anterior and posterior portions (100–500 pg/ μl), while in unparasitized larvae, hormone levels only increased in the anterior portion (100–350 pg/ μl). Thus, the ecdysteroid peak observed in host 5th instars was probably produced, at least in part, by the parasitoids. It may serve to promote Cotesia congregata's molt from the second to the third instar and/or to facilitate parasitoid emergence from the host. In parasitized day-1 and -2 5th instars ligated between the last thoracic and 1st abdominal segments, hemolymph ecdysteroid titers reached much higher levels (500–3500 pg/ μl) in the anterior portion (no parasitoids present) than in the posterior portion (150–450 pg/ μl). Therefore, it appears that the parasitoid's regulation of hemolymph ecdysteroid titers occurs at two levels. First, parasitization neutralizes the host's ability to maintain its normal hemolymph ecdysteroid levels. Second, in a separate action, the parasitoid manipulates the ecdysteroid-producing machinery so that hemolymph levels are maintained at the 200–400 pg/ μl characteristic of day 3–4 hosts. This is the first report of a parasitoid's ability to interfere with the normal inhibitory mechanisms which prevent prothoracic gland production of ecdysteroid at inappropriate periods of insect growth and development.

Preliminary studies on the efficacy and establishment ofRoptrocerus xylophagorum [Hym.: Torymidae], a parasitoid ofIps grandicollis [Col.: Scolytidae], in Australia

Parasitization ofIps grandicollis Eichhoff byRoptrocerus xylophagorum (Ratzeburg), and intra-specific competition withinIps broods, were studied under laboratory conditions. Largest numbers of immatureR. xylophagorum were found in logs sampled when about half theIps brood were callow adults. Rates of parasitization rarely exceeded 20 %, and were usually much lower. Numbers of parasitoids were not affected by bark thickness. In the absence of parasitism,Ips broods suffered a density-dependent mortality which increased greatly in intensity and continued to act later in development of the broods when initial densities of larvae exceeded a threshold of about 400 per 1 000 cm2 of bark. The possible significance of this mortality is discussed in relation to the ability of parasitoids to reduceIps numbers.

Plant structure and the foraging success of Aphidius rhopalosiphi (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae)

Abstract. 1. A study of searching behaviour on wheat and host preference of Aphidius rhopalosiphi (DeStefani‐Perez) is described.2. Parasitoids divided their time equally between the leaves but spent very little time on the ear.3. After contact with honeydew or an aphid host, parasitoids were arrested in a particular area and increased the time spent searching.4. Aphids feeding on the ear were parasitized less successfully, since their position between the grains protected them from parasitoid attacks.5. A.rhopalosiphi exhibited no preference for Metopolophium dirhodum (Walker) or Sitobion avenae (Fabricius), although the handling time for the latter was significantly longer; this resulted in fewer S.avenae being parasitized when it was abundant. Parasitoids did not switch between hosts in these experiments.6. As a result of its searching behaviour, A.rhopalosiphi will encounter and parasitize M.dirhodum feeding on the leaves more frequently than S.avenae, which feeds on the ear. This will limit the parasitoid's ability to regulate populations of the cereal aphid S. avenae.