A: Cholesterol Acyltransferase1 Research Articles

ACAT-1-Regulated Cholesteryl Ester Accumulation Modulates Gemcitabine Resistance in Biliary Tract Cancer.

Biliary tract cancer (BTC) has few choices of chemotherapy, including gemcitabine, therefore exploring the mechanisms of gemcitabine resistance is important. We focused on lipid metabolism because biliary tract epithelial cells are essential in cholesterol and bile acid metabolism and the messenger RNA (mRNA) microarray analysis showed high acyl coenzyme A: cholesterol acyltransferase 1 (ACAT-1) expression in BTC gemcitabine-resistant (GR) cell lines. We hypothesized that aberrant accumulation of cholesteryl ester (CE) regulated by ACAT-1 could modulate GR in BTC. CE accumulations were measured in human BTC cell lines, and the relationships between CE levels, ACAT-1 expressions, and gemcitabine sensitivity were analyzed. We performed a small-interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated knockdown and biochemical inhibition of ACAT-1 in BTC cell lines and alterations of gemcitabine sensitivity were evaluated. To evaluate the clinical significance of ACAT-1 in regard to GR, immunohistochemistry was performed and ACAT-1 expressions were analyzed in resected BTC specimens. CE levels were correlated with ACAT-1 expressions and GR in four human BTC cell lines. siRNA-mediated knockdown of ACAT-1 in two independent GR cell clones as well as ACAT-1 inhibitor treatment significantly increased gemcitabine sensitivity; knockdown of ACAT-1: 5.63- and 8.02-fold; ACAT-1 inhibitor: 8.75- and 9.13-fold, respectively. ACAT-1 expression in resected BTC specimens revealed that the disease-free survival of the ACAT-1 low-intensity group (median 2.3 years) had a significantly better outcome than that of the ACAT-1 high-intensity group (median 1.1years) under gemcitabine treatment after surgery (*p<0.05). Our findings suggest that CE and ACAT-1 might be a novel therapeutic target for GR in BTC.

Recombinant Klotho protein enhances cholesterol efflux of THP-1 macrophage-derived foam cells via suppressing Wnt/\u03b2-catenin signaling pathway

BackgroundAtherosclerosis (AS) is the basis of cardiovascular diseases, characterized by chronic inflammatory and lipid metabolism disorders. Although the anti-inflammatory effect of Klotho in AS has been clearly shown, its lipid-lowering effect is unclear. In this study, we examined the effects of recombinant Klotho (Re-KL) protein on lipid accumulation in foam cells.MethodsTHP-1 cells were exposed to 100 nM phorbol myristate acetate for 24 h and then to oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL; 80 mg/mL) to induce foam cell formation. Subsequently, the foam cells were incubated with Re-KL and/or DKK1, an inhibitor of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway.ResultsOil red O staining and cholesterol intake assay revealed that the foam cell model was constructed successfully. Pre-treatment of the foam cells with Re-KL decreased total cholesterol level, up-regulated the expression of ATP binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) and G1 (ABCG1), and down-regulated the expression of acyl coenzyme a-cholesterol acyltransferase 1 (ACAT1) and members of the scavenger family (SR-A1 and CD36). In addition, the expression of Wnt/β-catenin pathway-related proteins in foam cells was significantly decreased by the stimulus of Re-KL. Interestingly, the effect of Re-KL was similar to that of DKK1 on foam cells.ConclusionsThe Re-KL-induced up-regulation of reverse cholesterol transport capacity promotes cholesterol efflux and reduces lipid accumulation by suppressing the Wnt/β-catenin pathway in foam cells.

Insulin promotes progression of colon cancer by upregulation of ACAT1

BackgroundInsulin resistant and the progression of cancer is closely related. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of insulin on the proliferation and migration of colon cancer cells and its underlying mechanism.MethodsColon carcinoma tissues from the 80 cases of colon cancer patients were collected. Immunohistochemistry was used to detect the expression of acyl coenzyme A: cholesterol acyltransferase1 (ACAT1), and we analyzed the correlation between hyperglycemia and ACAT1, hyperglycemia and metastasis. CCK8 assay and transwell assay were used to investigate the effect of different concentrations of insulin and ACAT1siRNA on human colon cancer cell line HT-29. ACAT1 mRNA expression and protein level in HT-29 cells were determined by real-time quantitative PCR and western blotting, respectively.ResultsBiopsies from patients with colon carcinoma showed hyperglycemia links ACAT1, lymph nodes metastasis and distant metastasis. Insulin markedly promoted cell proliferation and migration in human colon cancer HT-29 cells. Moreover, ACAT1mRNA expression and protein level were increased by insulin. ACAT1siRNA resulted in a complete inhibition of the ACAT1 mRNA expression. Consequently insulin-triggered cell proliferation and migration on colon cancer cells were inhibited.ConclusionThe progression of colon cancer has a positive correlation with hyperinsulinemia. Insulin-triggered cell proliferation and metastatic effects on colorectal cancer cells are mediated by ACAT1. Therefore, insulin could promote colon cancer progression by upregulation of ACAT1, which maybe is a potential therapeutic target for colon cancer.

ATR-101, a selective ACAT1 inhibitor, decreases ACTH-stimulated cortisol concentrations in dogs with naturally occurring Cushing\u2019s syndrome

BackgroundCushing’s syndrome in humans shares many similarities with its counterpart in dogs in terms of etiology (pituitary versus adrenal causes), clinical signs, and pathophysiologic sequelae. In both species, treatment of pituitary- and adrenal-dependent disease is met with limitations. ATR-101, a selective inhibitor of ACAT1 (acyl coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase 1), is a novel small molecule therapeutic currently in clinical development for the treatment of adrenocortical carcinoma, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, and Cushing’s syndrome in humans. Previous studies in healthy dogs have shown that ATR-101 treatment led to rapid, dose-dependent decreases in adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulated cortisol levels. The purpose of this clinical study was to investigate the effects of ATR-101 in dogs with Cushing’s syndrome.MethodsATR-101 pharmacokinetics and activity were assessed in 10 dogs with naturally-occurring Cushing’s syndrome, including 7 dogs with pituitary-dependent disease and 3 dogs with adrenal-dependent disease. ATR-101 was administered at 3 mg/kg PO once daily for one week, followed by 30 mg/kg PO once daily for one (n = 4) or three (n = 6) weeks. Clinical, biochemical, adrenal hormonal, and pharmacokinetic data were obtained weekly for study duration.ResultsATR-101 exposure increased with increasing dose. ACTH-stimulated cortisol concentrations, the primary endpoint for the study, were significantly decreased with responders (9 of 10 dogs) experiencing a mean ± standard deviation reduction in cortisol levels of 50 ± 17% at study completion. Decreases in pre-ACTH-stimulated cortisol concentrations were observed in some dogs although overall changes in pre-ACTH cortisol concentrations were not significant. The compound was well-tolerated and no serious drug-related adverse effects were reported.ConclusionsThis study highlights the potential utility of naturally occurring canine Cushing’s syndrome as a model for human disease and provides proof of concept for ATR-101 as a novel agent for the treatment of endocrine disorders like Cushing’s syndrome in humans.

Toll-like receptor 4 small interfering RNA inhibits proliferation, invasion and migration in colorectal cancer cells by downregulating acyl coenzyme A cholesterol acyltransferase 1 expression

Objective Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is involved in tumor development. Numerous studies have confirmed that TLR4 mediates processes in tumorigenesis, for example, inflammation, proliferation and invasion. However, the effects of TLR4 on colorectal cancer development have not been fully elucidated. The present study aimed to evaluate the effects and mechanisms of TLR4 on colorectal cancer development. Methods The expression of TLR4 and acyl coenzyme A cholesterol acyltransferase 1 (ACAT1) in colorectal cancer tissues and cell lines was detected using reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and Western blotting. Cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) and Transwell assays were used to evaluate the effects of TLR4 silencing on cell proliferation, migration and invasion in HT29 and SW480. RT-PCR and Western blotting were used to determine the regulation between TLR4 and ACAT1. Results Both TLR4 and ACAT1 were highly expressed in colorectal cancer tissues (TLR4 mRNA: 2.395 0±0.247 7 and 1.093 0±0.075 8, P=0.000; ACAT1 mRNA: 2.196 0±0.189 5 and 1.093 0±0.075 8, P=0.000) and cell lines. Inhibition of TLR4 suppressed cell proliferation, migration and invasion in HT29 and SW480. TLR4 small interfering RNA(siRNA) decreased ACAT1 expression in HT29 (mRNA: 0.350 0±0.145 7 and 1.017 0±0.145 0, P=0.032; Protein: 0.523 3±0.052 1 and 1.140 0±0.105 8, P=0.006), and that overexpression of ACAT1 by pLV-Neo-ACAT1 abolished the effects of TLR4 siRNA on colorectal cancer cell lines. Conclusion TLR4 siRNA inhibits cell proliferation, migration and invasion by suppressing ACAT1 expression, suggesting that TLR4 may be a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of colorectal cancer. Key words: Toll-like receptor 4; Small interfering RNA; Colorectal cancer; Acyl coenzyme A cholesterol acyltransferase 1

TLR4 siRNA inhibits proliferation and invasion in colorectal cancer cells by downregulating ACAT1 expression

AimsToll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is involved in tumor development. Numerous studies have confirmed that TLR4 mediates processes in tumorigenesis, for example, inflammation, proliferation and invasion. However, the effects of TLR4 on colorectal cancer development have not been fully elucidated. The present study aimed to evaluate the effects and mechanisms of TLR4 on colorectal cancer development. Main methodsThe expression of TLR4 and Acyl coenzyme A cholesterol acyltransferase 1 (ACAT1) in colorectal cancer tissues and cell lines was detected using RT-PCR and Western blot. The nude mouse xenograft model was established by subcutaneous injection of SW480 cells transfected with TLR4 scramble or TLR4 siRNA. CCK8 and transwell assays were used to evaluate the effects of TLR4 silencing on cell proliferation, migration and invasion in HT29 and SW480. RT-PCR and Western blot was used to determine the regulation between TLR4 and ACAT1. Key findingsBoth TLR4 and ACAT1 were highly expressed in colorectal cancer tissues and cell lines. Inhibition of TLR4 reduced tumor growth, suppressed cell proliferation, migration and invasion in HT29 and SW480. TLR4 siRNA decreased ACAT1 expression in HT29, and that overexpression of ACAT1 by pLV-Neo-ACAT1 abolished the effects of TLR4 on colorectal cancer cell lines. SignificanceTLR4 siRNA inhibits cell proliferation, migration and invasion by suppressing ACAT1 expression, suggesting that TLR4 may be a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of colorectal cancer.

Salusin-β induces foam cell formation and monocyte adhesion in human vascular smooth muscle cells via miR155/NOX2/NFκB pathway.

Vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) are indispensible components in foam cell formation. Salusin-β is a stimulator in the progression of atherosclerosis. Here, we showed that salusin-β increased foam cell formation evidenced by accumulation of lipid droplets and intracellular cholesterol content, and promoted monocyte adhesion in human VSMCs. Salusin-β increased the expressions and activity of acyl coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase-1 (ACAT-1) and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) in VSMCs. Silencing of ACAT-1 abolished the salusin-β-induced lipid accumulation, and silencing of VCAM-1 prevented the salusin-β-induced monocyte adhesion in VSMCs. Salusin-β caused p65-NFκB nuclear translocation and increased p65 occupancy at the ACAT-1 and VCAM-1 promoter. Inhibition of NFκB with Bay 11-7082 prevented the salusin-β-induced ACAT-1 and VCAM-1 upregulation, foam cell formation and monocyte adhesion in VSMCs. Scavenging ROS, inhibiting NADPH oxidase or knockdown of NOX2 abolished the effects of salusin-β on ACAT-1 and VCAM-1 expressions, p65-NFκB nuclear translocation, lipid accumulation and monocyte adhesion in VSMCs. Salusin-β increased miR155 expression, and knockdown of miR155 prevented the effects of salusin-β on ACAT-1 and VCAM-1 expressions, p65-NFκB nuclear translocation, lipid accumulation, monocyte adhesion and ROS production in VSMCs. These results indicate that salusin-β induces foam formation and monocyte adhesion via miR155/NOX2/NFκB-mediated ACAT-1 and VCAM-1 expressions in VSMCs.

Macrophage-mediated cholesterol handling in atherosclerosis.

Formation of foam cells is a hallmark at the initial stages of atherosclerosis. Monocytes attracted by pro-inflammatory stimuli attach to the inflamed vascular endothelium and penetrate to the arterial intima where they differentiate to macrophages. Intimal macrophages phagocytize oxidized low-density lipoproteins (oxLDL). Several scavenger receptors (SR), including CD36, SR-A1 and lectin-like oxLDL receptor-1 (LOX-1), mediate oxLDL uptake. In late endosomes/lysosomes of macrophages, oxLDL are catabolysed. Lysosomal acid lipase (LAL) hydrolyses cholesterol esters that are enriched in LDL to free cholesterol and free fatty acids. In the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), acyl coenzyme A: cholesterol acyltransferase-1 (ACAT1) in turn catalyses esterification of cholesterol to store cholesterol esters as lipid droplets in the ER of macrophages. Neutral cholesteryl ester hydrolases nCEH and NCEH1 are involved in a secondary hydrolysis of cholesterol esters to liberate free cholesterol that could be then out-flowed from macrophages by cholesterol ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters ABCA1 and ABCG1 and SR-BI. In atherosclerosis, disruption of lipid homoeostasis in macrophages leads to cholesterol accumulation and formation of foam cells.

Loss of Apoptosis Regulator through Modulating IAP Expression (ARIA) Protects Blood Vessels from Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is the primary cause for cardiovascular disease. Here we identified a novel mechanism underlying atherosclerosis, which is provided by ARIA (apoptosis regulator through modulating IAP expression), the transmembrane protein that we recently identified. ARIA is expressed in macrophages present in human atherosclerotic plaque as well as in mouse peritoneal macrophages. When challenged with acetylated LDL, peritoneal macrophages isolated from ARIA-deficient mice showed substantially reduced foam cell formation, whereas the uptake did not differ from that in wild-type macrophages. Mechanistically, loss of ARIA enhanced PI3K/Akt signaling and consequently reduced the expression of acyl coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase-1 (ACAT-1), an enzyme that esterifies cholesterol and promotes its storage, in macrophages. Inhibition of PI3K abolished the reduction in ACAT-1 expression and foam cell formation in ARIA-deficient macrophages. In contrast, overexpression of ARIA reduced Akt activity and enhanced foam cell formation in RAW264.7 macrophages, which was abrogated by treatment with ACAT inhibitor. Of note, genetic deletion of ARIA significantly reduced the atherosclerosis in ApoE-deficient mice. Oil red-O-positive lipid-rich lesion was reduced, which was accompanied by an increase of collagen fiber and decrease of necrotic core lesion in atherosclerotic plaque in ARIA/ApoE double-deficient mice. Analysis of bone marrow chimeric mice revealed that loss of ARIA in bone marrow cells was sufficient to reduce the atherosclerogenesis in ApoE-deficient mice. Together, we identified a unique role of ARIA in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis at least partly by modulating macrophage foam cell formation. Our results indicate that ARIA could serve as a novel pharmacotherapeutic target for the treatment of atherosclerotic diseases.

Role of ACAT1-positive late endosomes in macrophages: cholesterol metabolism and therapeutic applications for Niemann-Pick disease type C.

Macrophages in hyperlipidemic conditions accumulate cholesterol esters and develop into foamy transformed macrophages. During this transformation, macrophages demonstrate endoplasmic reticulum fragmentation and consequently produce acyl coenzyme A: cholesterol acyltransferase 1 (ACAT1)-positive late endosomes (ACAT1-LE). ACAT1-LE-positive macrophages effectively esterify modified or native low-density lipoprotein-derived free cholesterol, which results in efficient cholesterol esterification as well as atherosclerotic plaque formation. These macrophages show significant cholesterol ester formation even when free cholesterol egress from late endosomes is impaired, which indicates that free cholesterol is esterified at ACAT1-LE. Genetic blockade of cholesterol egress from late endosomes causes Niemann-Pick disease type C (NPC), an inherited lysosomal storage disease with progressive neurodegeneration. Induction of ACAT1-LE in macrophages with the NPC phenotype led to significant recovery of cholesterol esterification. In addition, in vivo ACAT1-LE induction significantly extended the lifespan of mice with the NPC phenotype. Thus, ACAT1-LE not only regulates intracellular cholesterol metabolism but also ameliorates NPC pathophysiology.

Erratum to: Modulation Peroxisome Proliferators Activated Receptor alpha (PPAR α) and Acyl Coenzyme A: Cholesterol Acyltransferase1 (ACAT1) Gene expression by Fatty Acids in Foam cell

Erratum to: Modulation Peroxisome Proliferators Activated Receptor alpha (PPAR α) and Acyl Coenzyme A: Cholesterol Acyltransferase1 (ACAT1) Gene expression by Fatty Acids in Foam cell

Modulation Peroxisome Proliferators Activated Receptor alpha (PPAR α) and Acyl Coenzyme A: Cholesterol Acyltransferase1 (ACAT1) Gene expression by Fatty Acids in Foam cell

BackgroundOne of the most important factors in the initiation and progression of atherosclerosis is the default in macrophage cholesterol homeostasis. Many genes and transcription factors such as Peroxisome Proliferators Activated Receptors (PPARs) and Acyl Coenzyme A: Cholesterol Acyltransferase1 (ACAT1) are involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Fatty Acids are important ligands of PPARα and the concentration of them can effect expression of ACAT1. So this study designed to clarified on the role of these genes and fatty acids on the lipid metabolism in foam cells.MethodsThis study examined effects of c9, t11-Conjugated Linoleic Acid(c9, t11-CLA), Alpha Linolenic Acid (LA), Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) on the PPARα and ACAT1 genes expression by using Real time PCR and cholesterol homeostasis in THP-1 macrophages derived foam cells.ResultsIncubation of c9, t11-CLA, LA cause a significant reduction in intracellular Total Cholesterol, Free Cholesterol, cellular and Estrified Cholesterol concentrations (P ≤ 0.05). CLA and LA had no significant effect on the mRNA levels of ACAT1, but EPA increased ACAT1 mRNA expression (P = 0.003). Treatment with EPA increased PPARα mRNA levels (P ≤ 0.001), although CLA, LA had no significant effect on PPARα mRNA expression.ConclusionIn conclusion, it seems that different fatty acids have different effects on gene expression and lipid metabolism and for complete conception study of the genes involved in lipid metabolism in foam cell all at once maybe is benefit.

Characterization of Two Human Genes Encoding Acyl Coenzyme A:Cholesterol Acyltransferase-related Enzymes

The enzyme acyl coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase 1 (ACAT1) mediates sterol esterification, a crucial component of intracellular lipid homeostasis. Two enzymes catalyze this activity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast), and several lines of evidence suggest multigene families may also exist in mammals. Using the human ACAT1 sequence to screen data bases of expressed sequence tags, we identified two novel and distinct partial human cDNAs. Full-length cDNA clones for these ACAT related gene products (ARGP) 1 and 2 were isolated from a hepatocyte (HepG2) cDNA library. ARGP1 was expressed in numerous human adult tissues and tissue culture cell lines, whereas expression of ARGP2 was more restricted. In vitro microsomal assays in a yeast strain deleted for both esterification genes and completely deficient in sterol esterification indicated that ARGP2 esterified cholesterol while ARGP1 did not. In contrast to ACAT1 and similar to liver esterification, the activity of ARGP2 was relatively resistant to a histidine active site modifier. ARGP2 is therefore a tissue-specific sterol esterification enzyme which we thus designated ACAT2. We speculate that ARGP1 participates in the coenzyme A-dependent acylation of substrate(s) other than cholesterol. Consistent with this hypothesis, ARGP1, unlike any other member of this multigene family, possesses a predicted diacylglycerol binding motif suggesting that it may perform the last acylation in triglyceride biosynthesis.