4th Century BC Research Articles

The role of Macedonia in the decline of Aiakid monarchy in Molossia/Epeiros

From the late 6th century BC on, close connections between the political actors of Thrace, Hellespontine Phrygia, Persia, Athens, and, during their times of Greek supremacy, Sparta and Thebes are attested. When Macedonia advanced to the Hellespontine sphere, the basic understanding was ultimately disturbed. Aiming at controlling both sides of the straits, Philip could take the Phrygian satraps at the climax of their influence as an example and pursue a mirror-image policy. This paper explores the ways Philip’s connection with Artabazos may have provided him with insights into the political networks and structures in the area. It also considers the history of family ties between the Argeads and the family of Artabazos.

ANCIENT GREEK EXPERIENCE OF POLITICAL AND LEGAL REGULATION OF OIKONOMIA AS A BALANCE OF INDIVIDUAL AND GENERAL

The paper examines the political and legal means and ethical principles of harmonizing the interests of the individual and the general in the economic activity of ancient Greek society in the 8th–4th centuries BC. Explore the reform of the economic sphere, reveal the meaning of oikonomia, its structural components in the imagination and state legal practice of the ancient Greeks, highlight the shortcomings of legal regulation in matters of capital accumulation to level out the contradictions of the individual and the general. The ancient Greeks were aware of the antagonism between the individual and the general, understood the dynamic essence of their relationship and formed ethical and legal means of harmonizing the manifested contradiction. As a result of the pan-Athenian agreement, polic was determined as the dominant sphere, where oikonomia acted as a separate subject of citizen activity and consisted of three meanings: a) archaic form of blood-family economic activity, closed in itself, despotic in its essence and therefore destructive for the general; b) a household that naturally provides everything necessary for a patriarchal family and provides the opportunity for its owner to become a “master of industrial relations management.” Individual management experience ensures freedom for each citizen and can promote the interests of the general; c) chremastics is an element of оікіа. This type of activity, under the influence of egocentrism and an anti-human position, naturally threatens the common because it destroys the solidarity and democratic foundations of the policy. Therefore, certain types of chremastics (usury) were prohibited, and the type of activity itself was placed under ethical and legal control – in the form of voluntary charity. This policy was not effective and the way of managing authority was replaced by the state-legal way of managing domestic policy. Since the formation of the professional state apparatus and the formation of the Athenian Empire, oikonomia and chremastics have been transformed from a multiple phenomenon of the internal life of policy into a political lever of the external activities of the state. Athens was transformed into a large archaic оікіа – the majority of citizens and the state itself were enriched unlimitedly. Chremastics have become the dominant activity and value of the public sphere in Athens. This became one of the levers of a new imbalance of individual and general interests, the decline of ancient Greek civilization.

A bronze deposit excavated at Kalaureia in 2016. A statuette of the Herakles Chiaramonti type, a stand and a thymiaterion

This article presents three bronzes found on the island of Poros in 2016, during excavations in Area L, the presumed area of Kalaureia’s ancient settlement, c. 200 m to the south of the Sanctuary of Poseidon. The deposit included: 1. A statuette of the Herakles Chiaramonti type, here suggested to have been produced during the 2nd or 1st century BC; 2. A stand which may have functioned as a thymiaterion (incense burner) or a lamp stand. Judging from close parallels the stand was most likely produced during the 5th or 4th century BC; 3. A high-stemmed dish, which is interpreted as a thymiaterion contemporary with the stand. The items are tentatively suggested to have been used together, perhaps in religious veneration of Herakles. The bronzes are suggested to have been deposited either for what was intended to be temporary safe-keeping, or for religious reasons.

Sejarah Perkembangan Filsafat dan Sains pada Zaman Yunani

Ancient Greece was an important milestone in the history of the development of philosophy and science. This article will summarize the historical development of these two fields in Greece. In the 6th to 4th centuries BC, an intellectual culture grew in Greece known as the Classical Age. This research uses a library approach (library research). According to Mushtofa et al. (2020) bibliography research is research carried out in order to obtain information data obtained from various written sources. This research shows that the development of science in Ancient Greece and beyond was driven by the spirit of understanding the philosophy of humanism. The philosophy of humanism teaches that humans have the ability to regulate themselves and the universe around them. This belief has been present since ancient Greece and has been one of the main factors in the evolution of human thinking about nature.

New trends of export of vocational education from China within «One Belt, One Road» initiative

Introduction. Over the past few years, the authorities of the People's Republic of China have begun to pay more and more attention to the development of vocational secondary and higher education. In addition to the growth and development of this area within the country, gradually with the increase in China’s presence on the world stage, the PRC is beginning to export its educational services abroad.Purpose setting. The purpose of the study was to identify the features of China's promotion of its education abroad. The task is to examine the main forms of export of Chinese vocational education to foreign countries.Methodology and methods of the study. Using general methods of scientific knowledge and using a large array of factual data and sources in Chinese, consider the trends in the spread of Chinese vocational education in the world.Results. China has opened a new page in the development of vocational education both within the country and by experimenting with new formats of international cooperation in this segment of education. An example of such projects is the opening of the so-called Lu Ban Workshops, created in honor of the famous Chinese philosopher, engineer and artisan of the 5th century BC, which train modern specialists with technical skills. In total, China has launched over 40 similar workshops abroad with 70 different modern specialties, where more than 11 thousand people have already been trained. After the successful launch of Lu Ban Workshops, various Chinese professional institutions began to open their own specialized workshops, including those for the development of automobile transport, maritime economy, printing, etc.Conclusion. Such projects, which today cover both the SCO countries and the participants of the «One Belt, One Road» initiative, create a new platform for international exchange and cooperation in the field of vocational education and help promote humanitarian exchanges between China and other countries of the world.

Climate and natural risks of the settlement of Yuzhno-Ussuriysk fortress area

The paleogeographic study of one of the large Medieval settlements of the Jin Empire (1115–1234) in the Primorye was carried out in order to analyze the minor climatic rhythm during the settlement of a large river valley. New data on the chronology of the settlement were obtained using radiocarbon dating of charcoal and tephrostratigraphy. It was established that the territory began to be developed by the Krounovskaya culture (4th century BC to the 3rd century AD) under relatively dry conditions associated with a decrease in the summer monsoon intensity. In the 10th century the humidity increased sharply. The peak of warming occurred in the 11th century. At this time Medieval settlement appeared here, that existed before the construction of the fortress. The layers of this settlement lie under the ramparts. The study of pollen and diatoms in the cultural layers has allowed us to determine the characteristics of the environment during the Jurchen period (12th–13th centuries). Radiocarbon dating of the humus shows that the cultural layers contain redeposited organogenic material, which provides information on the pre-Jurchen environment. It has been established that significant changes in the natural steppe landscapes occurred in the early Middle Ages. Pollen data show signs of agriculture and other economic activities, including the plants’ cultivation, the development of ruderal plants and apophytes, as well as spores of pathogenic fungi. During the development of the territory in the Middle Ages, the main risks were associated with severe floods. Layers of loams found among the cultural layers indicate the repeated flooding of the fortress. Bioindicators of severe floods are allochthonous diatoms, represented by species that lived in the aquatic environment.

Studi Komparatif Teori Air Thales Dengan Teori Air Dalam Konsep Al-qur’an

The initial idea for writing this paper originated from the author's anxiety to find an answer to whether there was a common thread that connected or relatedness and harmony between Ancient Greek philosophy and Islamic teachings, focused on a discussion of the theory of water put forward by Thales, the pioneer of ancient Greek philosophy in the 6th century BC. in line with the theory of water contained in the Qur'an which was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad SAW. in the mid 6-7 AD range. I think we have encountered a lot of research and discussions about ancient Greek philosophy, especially thoughts about Thales, but the author found a gap that has not been discussed, namely whether there is harmony between these two seemingly different points of view, which is philosophy. is guided by rational reason while Islamic teachings are guided by revelation, so in this research the author has found common points of similarities and differences which I will explain below. In this research the author uses a descriptive comparative analysis method and examines various related sources, hopefully it will be useful for readers

From the Hippocratic Oath to modern deontological codes: continuity or overcoming?

Even if the Hippocratic Oath in its enlightened synthesis encapsulates the essence of the great master's deontological teachings, there is no doubt that a more complete picture of Hippocratic ethics can be gleaned from the contents of the entire Corpus Hippocraticum, and it matters little if the various writings contained therein are not all attributable to him, but are in fact the work of various authors who lived between the 5th and 2nd centuries BC.

Affinities of the Sargat Population in the Baraba Forest-Steppe

Within-group, between-group, and comparative analysis of craniometric data relating to local and chronological samples of the Sargat population (5th century BC to late 3rd / 4th century AD) was carried out. The study focuses on sample from the Baraba forest-steppe. Comparative analysis, performed with the principal component method, included Early Iron Age samples from adjacent territories. No discontinuity was found in the spatio-temporal cranial variation among the Sargat groups. Despite differences between the three Sargat samples (Baraba, Irtysh, and Trans-Ural), they all represent one and the same Caucasoid physical type, characterized by meso-brachycrany, medium-high braincase, wide low, and somewhat flattened face, moderately inclined frontal bone, and protruding nasal bones. The Baraba group differs from two others by a wider face, larger pyriform aperture, and largest dacryal width. Comparative statistical analysis indicates affinities of the male part of Sargat groups with nomads of the Urals and Kazakhstan—Saka, Sauromatians, and Sarmats. Possibly, military campaigns by the Achaemenid state against the nomadic tribal unions of Central Asia in the second half of the 6th century BC triggered the migration process. Initially, migrants moved to the Irtysh basin, and thence to the western (Trans-Ural) and eastern (Baraba) peripheries of the emerging Sargat culture. The female part of the population was less affected by migratory processes. Female samples of the Sargat reveal an autochthonous cranial complex.

Sinop Balatlar Excavation Pebble Mosaic Pavement

During the 2022 Sinop Balatlar Excavation, a pebble stone mosaic floor was unearthed. The design of the mosaic, which adorns the andron room of a private residence, is U-shaped and the east-west kline sections are planned without decoration. The pebble floor placed horizontally and vertically on a pink nucleus is called the “hedgehog” model. Surrounded by ranke, wave and palmette motifs, a small part of the mosaic, which we think shows a flying Eros and his wingtips on it, has been preserved in the southwestern corner of the main panel. It is very important with the placement technique of the stones on it and the pattern repertoire created with white pebbles on a black ground. Compared to contemporary examples, the pebble mosaic dated to the end of the 5th century BC includes the Gordion and Olynthos mosaics, where the mosaic tradition in Asia Minor dates back, it occupies an important place in the ancient mosaic chronology as it indicates its existence in the 5th century BC.

The First Cranial Trepanation Find in a Meotian Burial Ground (Starokorsunskiy Settlement No. 2, Krasnodar Region)

A young woman’s skeleton dating back to the Meotian archaeological culture was studied during the investigation of the paleoanthropological series of the burial ground of the Starokorsunsky settlement No. 2. The burial ground is located in the Krasnodar Territory and is dated to the 4th century BC – 2nd century AD, while the burial under discussion dates back to the 2nd century BC – 2nd century AD. A trepanation hole with signs of healing was found on the skull of a young female of 17–25 years of age. In order to describe the pathological changes recorded on the cranial vault recommendations applied in modern paleoanthropology were used. Differential diagnosis was performed using descriptive macroscopic and X-ray diagnostic methods. It was possible to establish that the trepanation hole was made at least several years before the death of the individual. We suggested that the reason for the operation could be early synostosis of the skull sutures, and this manipulation was designed to reduce intracranial pressure and headaches caused by it. The article discusses the likely origins of medical skills for surgical manipulation. It is concluded that so far the data obtained do not allow us to speak unequivocally about the acquisition of medical knowledge by Meots from residents of the Asian Bosporus or from the Sarmatian environment.

Armament of the Maeotian Horsemen of the 4th Century BC (Based on Materials from the Prikubansky Burial Ground)

The horsemen, whose graves were discovered in the Prikubansky burial ground, represented the elite of the Maeotian army. Weapons were found in 28 burials. The main types of weapons were iron swords, spearheads, and arrowheads. Swords of the Sindo-Maeotian type were found in 26 burials, and in four burials there were two swords of different lengths. The swords differ in the blade width, the design of the transition space between the guard and the blade, and the shape of the bar-shaped pommel. Spearheads could be found in all the burials. Typically, a set consisted of 4–6 both heavy and light spearheads of various types. One dart tip was found among the spear tips in the three sets. Arrowheads were discovered in twenty burials. Sets of arrows consisted of various numbers of pieces, from a few to several dozens. Mostly, iron three-blade arrowheads were used (415 specimens), bronze (three-blade and triangular) were practically out of use (25 specimens), and bone bullet-shaped ones were represented by isolated finds. The arrows were placed in quivers, which were placed next to or under the sword. In the burials with two swords, there were two quivers. Specific types of weapons are long combat knives (30–42 cm) with bone handles found in seven burials. A set of combat knives could consist of 2–4 pieces. On the grounds of the position in the burial, it can be assumed that the knives were located in a special compartment of the quiver, in a case on the sheath of the sword, or in special wooden sheaths. The equipment of the horsemen included iron axes in the two burials. The dating of the equestrian assemblages is based on a narrow chronology of Greek amphorae from different centers of production, which are present in each burial. The high percentage of horseman complexes among the military burials of the Prikubansky necropolis is probably connected with the location of this group of the Maeotian population near the eastern border of the Asian Bosporus.

Virtual histology based on 3D X-ray microscopy imaging for non-destructive age-at-death estimation of incinerated teeth from the Tophet of Motya (Sicily, 6th century BC)

The reconstruction of infant biological history and mortality profiles provides biocultural insights into adulthood morbidity, maternal health, parental caregiving practices, and social dynamics. However, interpreting biological data from cremated infant remains in archaeological contexts can be challenging due to their often poor preservation and potential biases. Tophets, sanctuaries for distinct burial of cremated infant remains present in several Phoenician-Punic colonies in the Mediterranean area, offer an ideal case study. This study presents the first virtual histology performed in X-ray Microscopy-based imaging (XRM) on a sample of crowns of cremated deciduous teeth from the Tophet of Motya (Sicily, 6th century BC). The observation of the Neonatal Line (NL) in enamel tissue offers important informations on the community demographic profile, age-at-death classes and life-histories of the buried individuals. Results are consistent with previous studies on other human remains found in the main Tophets in Mediterranean basin and highlight the importance of using non-invasive techniques to collect and analyse data that are useful for the interpretation of newborns and infants burial practices.

Preliminary considerations on the Scythian stone statue of 4 th Century BC from the tumular necropolis from Peceneaga-Cerna, Tulcea County

Abstract During a survey in Peceneaga, Tulcea county in Dobruja, several settlements and mounds (necropolises) from the 4th century were discovered. Topographic and geophysical surveys of the “Breazu tumulus” and its surroundings have revealed a partially destroyed tumular necropolis, where the barrow with the statue had a stone ring. The presence of a burial chamber below the embankment could not be proven; another burial structure was probably present. On the largest tumulus lay a Scythian stone statue from the 4th century BC. The bearded left-handed warrior was represented with a belt, a gorythos and protective armor on his right thigh. In this time the North Pontic Scythians under Ataias, migrating westward, became increasingly sedentary. A Scythian center of power may have emerged there.

Two One-Armed Wooden Anchors from Egypt from the 5th–4th Centuries BC and their Ceramic Contexts

Two One-Armed Wooden Anchors from Egypt from the 5th–4th Centuries BC and their Ceramic Contexts

초기 고구려의 기층문화 연구 ④ - 桓仁 지역 돌무덤

This article analyzes the Dalishugou site, Dadianzi site, Guangfucun site, Fengjiapuzi site, and Wangjianglou site in Huanren County. Through the analysis of tombs, the location and distribution of tombs, their structure, burial method and funerary objects were examined from a tentative perspective. The structures of the tombs are diverse, and include stone cists, stone-lined tombs, pit-type and stone-mound-type dolmens, stone-mound tombs with capstones, and stone-lined tombs with non-stepped stone cairns. The stone-mound tombs with capstones have only been excavated at the Fengjiapuzi site. These tombs appear to be of a transitional aspect as they have a complex structure of a dolmen and a stone-mound tomb. Cremation customs were investigated at the Dadianzi site, Guangfucun site, Fengjiapuzi site, and Wangjianglou site. In particular, traces of the transformation of funerary objects due to cremation in the tomb were investigated. The bones in Wangjianglou tomb No. 1 were grayish-white in color, indicating cremation at high temperatures. Few artifacts were excavated from the tombs. A narrow-bladed bronze dagger and bronze arrowhead were excavated from the Dadianzi tomb, and a bronze bracelet was excavated in the Guangfucun tomb. Although several tombs with relatively diverse structures were excavated at the Fengjiapuzi site, the artifacts were simple, such as a mounted cup and a polished stone dagger imitating a narrow-bladed bronze dagger. In the Wangjianglou tomb, earthenware such as a Long-necked jar with four-ears, a jar-like plate, various ironware, jade bracelets, glass rings and ear plug, earring made of braided gold thread, and various ball-shaped beads were found. Among these, the Long-necked jar with four-ears is compared to a jar excavated from the Longtoushan dolmen in Xinbin and has many similarities with the earthenware of early Goguryeo. The tombs from the Bronze Age to the early Goguryeo period in the Huanren County are helpful in understanding the process of change and development in terms of their structure and funerary objects. The Dalishugou tombs was built around the 10th century BC. With the advance of the Yan Dynasty in the early 4th century BC, ironware from the Eastern Zhou was introduced, bringing about significant cultural changes in Northeast Asia. The stone cist tombs at the Dadianzi site and the dolmen at Guangfucun site date from around the mid-3rd century BC, although there is no significant difference in time. Also, around this time the stone-mound-type dolmens at the Fengjiapuzi site were built, as well as. The stone-mound tombs with capstones (No. 3 and No. 5) at the Fengjiapuzi site constructed at the end of the 3rd century BC. Meanwhile changes occurred as stone mounds played an important role in the tomb structure of this period, which became the stone-lined tombs with non-stepped stone cairns, representing the early Goguryeo tombs. Tombs No. 1 and No. 4 at the Wangjianglou site and tomb No. 4 at the Fengjiapuzi site are inferred to have been built around the 2nd century BC at the latest.

Those Infinite, Multiform Stories without Fixity: Myth and History, a Very Long Engagement

This paper deals with the problematic relationship between ancient historiography and mythology, or mythological stories as historical sources for historical research. Although Greek historiography had, in a sense, already been confronted with the problem of mythological intrusions into the substance of methodologically well-developed historical procedures (as early as the 5th century BC), Roman historiography continued for a long time to critically investigate and purify the stories of the foundation myths. This paper presents a detailed analysis of some methodologically relevant passages that reveal the attitudes of individual Greek and Roman historiographers towards myth as a (non-)source. At the same time, it questions the attitude of (early) Roman historiography towards myth by examining the philosophical treatise of the 2nd/3rd century philosopher Sextus Empiricus.

An updated reconstruction of Campi Flegrei caldera (southern Italy) ground deformation history and its interaction with the human sphere since Roman time

Since the 19th century, many scientists have tried to reconstruct the ground motions that occurred in the Campi Flegrei caldera, one of the most dangerous volcanos in the Mediterranean area. This study aims to assess the joint effects of vertical ground movements and anthropic forcing along the coasts of this volcanic area. A huge dataset of hundreds of archeo-stratigraphic boreholes was coupled with direct and indirect surveys of the main underwater archaeological sites scattered along the whole coastal sector and with the reinterpretation of bibliographic sources. Clear evidence of a differential volcano-tectonic behaviour (highlighted for the first time in this study) led us to divide the study area into three coastal stretches with homogeneous vertical ground movements. In each sector, a new relative sea-level (RSL) curve was reconstructed, by interpreting our stratigraphic and archaeological data in terms of SL markers covering a wider timespan compared to the previous studies, from the first Roman urbanization to the present day. The comparison between RSL curves and GIA models allowed estimating vertical ground movements (See Supplementary material 2) that occurred along the coast with decimetres accuracy. For each of the 5 recognized phase of uplift or subsidence, we also studied the subsequent effects in terms of coastal geomorphological change, and advantages or negative impacts on ancient human activities. We measured an overall subsiding trend that brought the RSL from −12 ± 1 m (4th century BC) to 7 ± 0.2 m during three different episodes between 5th and 15th centuries (1450–450 y BP), which was interrupted by short-lived falls (less of 100 years) of RSL. During the phases of RSL fall and/or volcano-tectonic stability, detected for the first time in the eastern and western part of the caldera (1st-2nd century AD and 3rd-4th century AD), a basinward shift of the coastline created newly emerged land even at the base of the local sea cliffs, where shore platforms emerged, favouring intense phases of urbanization on them along the Baia – Miseno sector and at the footslope of Rione Terra. This trend also favoured the closure of the Lucrino lagoon with an extended spit bar during the 2nd century BC, allowing the establishment of a large oyster farming system belonging to Sergio Orata. On the contrary, the subsiding phases resulted in the flooding of coastal areas and anthropic structures such as villas, nymphaea and ports inducing the construction of coastal protection structures. In the extreme case of Portus Julius, subsidence led to the abandonment of the military port and its move to nearby Miseno.

Between Understanding and Control: Science as a Cultural Product

AbstractSince the early days of humankind, people have been asking questions about Nature of two kinds: why did that happen? And how can that be used? In a broad sense, science was born that day. We show indeed that science has two complementary and interdependent souls that aim, respectively, to how to understand and how to control Nature. Through a broad historical analysis, this essay aims to (1) give an account of the development of science as an oscillation and an interplay between its two intrinsic natures, (2) demonstrate that this happened already in ancient times starting from the 6th century BC, and (3) the fact that in different periods one of the two natures was largely favored over the other is a consequence of science being a cultural product of the different social-historical contexts.

Study of the Geological Context of the 7th–6th Century BC Phoenician Era Shipwreck “Mazarrón 2” (Murcia, Spain)

The Mazarrón 2 shipwreck was found in 1994 on the beach of Playa de la Isla (Mazarrón, Murcia, Spain). This finding is extremely important because the boat and its lead cargo were still in a reasonable conservation state and, therefore, provided new data on naval construction, commercial goods, navigation routes, and the relationships between the Phoenicians and the local population in the 7th–6th century BC. Currently, the shipwreck remains underwater, protected by a metallic coffer. In the last 2 years, a Preliminary Studies Project has been carried out, supported by national and regional public institutions. This research aims to know the shipwreck’s conservation state and to determine the extraction and conservation methods at the Museo Nacional de Arqueología Subacuática ARQVA (Cartagena, Spain), where the conservation and restoration treatment will be conducted. The sampling strategy and analytical study included not only wood and other materials from the shipwreck and its cargo but also the seawater and the seabed materials in the vicinity of the shipwreck. This paper presents the results of the geochemical study of the archeological site. The applied methodology included physico-chemical tests, X-ray diffraction, optical microscopy, FTIR spectroscopy, field-emission scanning electron microscopy coupled with X-ray microanalysis, and X-ray microscopy. The results indicated that, despite the wreck being buried at a shallow depth (less than 50 cm) in a marine environment with a water column of 2–2.5 m, influenced by complex coastal dynamics that favor an oxic environment, early diagenetic processes like the formation of pyrite framboids are particularly intense in the pores and internal channels of the wreck’s wood, where a different dysoxic–anoxic environment prevails. These processes have been the main mechanisms to have affected the wreck and are related to the biogeochemistry of sediments. The sediments have been confirmed to be closely related to the geological context of the Mazarrón region. The conducted study found no significant evidence of pollution due to the lead cargo.