3D Woven Structures Research Articles

Exploring the mechanical potential of 3D woven solid structures for car seat cover

Seats serve as the primary connection point between humans and cars. To meet consumer expectations, the seat cover must possess mechanical durability. This is crucial due to the significance and expense associated with the assembling car seat cover. The mechanical durability of a material can be assessed by testing its tensile strength, tearing strength, stretchability, abrasion resistance, and pilling resistance. Many researchers conducted analyses on the mechanical performance of traditional seat covers. This study aims to explore the mechanical potential of 3D woven solid structures for car seat covers. Air-texturized polyester yarn (ATY) was utilized to produce various 3D woven solid structures and compared to benchmark 2D fabric seat covers with equivalent areal density. Placing three sets of yarn in the x, y, and z axes enhanced the structural integrity and distributed the stress evenly, which helped to boost the mechanical performance of 3D structures. The study concluded that 3D woven structures have the potential for mechanical performance and are expected to be utilized as car seat covers in the near future.

A mapping-based method capturing the mesoscopic morphological characteristics of 3D woven fabric torsion structures

Upon torsional molding, 3D woven fabrics accommodate a complex mesoscopic morphology that significantly governs the mechanical properties of composite structures. This paper is aimed to propose a macro-mesoscopic mapping method for characterizing the mesoscopic morphology of 3D woven fabric torsion structures. To this end, hyperelastic constitutive molding simulations of fabrics are performed to determine the macroscopic deformation profile within the structure in first. Then the mesoscopic details are resolved with the unit cell deformed accordingly at each digital element. A macro-mesoscopic mapping relationship is thus established by constructing a multiscale topological description function so as to tune the mesoscopic unit cells in consistency with the macroscopic manifold. Finally, the collection of mapping data is utilized for geometric reconstruction, establishing a mesoscale geometrically refined descriptive model about the torsion structure. The mesoscopic morphology of the reconstructed model is shown to agree well with experimental results. Moreover, the mapping method offers a significant time-saving strategy as the calculation time is only within a few minutes on a personal computer, in comparison with existing treatments necessitating 2-day computation on a workstation against similar tasks. The applicability of the present method to resolve other multiscale manifolds is also demonstrated.

Effect of hybrid weaving patterns on mechanical performance of 3D woven structures

Generally, 2D woven structures are used in a different high performance applications. But 2D woven natural fibers based structures have poor mechanical properties as compared to glass and other synthetic yarns. One of the possible solutions to overcome this problem is to develop 3D woven structures with natural fibers. The present work developed hemp yarn based three types of novel 3D woven structures, i.e., hybrid through the thickness (HB-1 (TT)), novel woven layer to layer structure (HB-2 (LL)), and layer to layer structure with double warp yarn (HB-3 (LL)). Furthermore to evaluate the impact of interlocking pattern on the static mechanical properties i.e., tensile, tear, puncture resistance and stiffness tests of the strucures were performed. The findings reveal variations in tensile strength among different 3D woven structures. Specifically, the 3D woven HB-3 (LL) configuration demonstrated the highest tensile strength, whereas the HB-1 (TT) structure exhibited the lowest. In the warp orientation, the tensile strength of the 3D woven HB-3 (LL) structure surpassed that of the HB-1 (TT) structure by 25.75%. Additionally, the stiffness results for the 3D woven HB-1 (TT) structure in the warp direction exceeded those of the HB-2 (LL) structure by 55.53%. Moreover, the HB-3 (LL) structure displayed superior puncture resistance compared to other 3D woven configurations. Furthermore, in the warp direction, the tear strength of the 3D woven HB-1 (TT) structure exceeded that of the HB-2 (LL) structure by 16.40%. Statistical analysis utilizing one-way ANOVA (Tukey) revealed that the influence of 3D woven hybrid structures on the outcomes of mechanical testing was statistically significant.

Manufacturing seamless three-dimensional woven preforms with complex shapes based on a new weaving technology

A new weaving technology using a modified z-binder interlacement system was designed to demonstrate its potential for the effective, continuous, efficient, and rapid manufacturing of various three-dimensional (3D) woven structures. First, three representative 3D woven preforms were fabricated. Then, epoxy resin was transferred to a preform. The manufactured 3D woven textile-reinforced composites were investigated using micro-CT analysis, tensile tests, and bending tests to study the effect of the z-binder interlacing on the structure. Furthermore, a design rule was established that could seamlessly create complex 3D woven structures with non-uniform heights in the z-direction, such as boxes, bowls, and pyramids, demonstrating that the seamless 3D woven preform of the complex shape can be fabricated with structural integrity.

Improving thermal conductivity of reduced-activation ferritic/martensitic steel using three-dimensional woven copper fiber

Reduced-activation ferritic/martensitic (RAFM) steel is a primary candidate for blanket modules in nuclear-fusion reactors. Blanket modules transfer thermal energy generated by nuclear-fusion reactions to the coolant; therefore, blanket materials must have high thermal conductivity. RAFM steel is suitable for fusion reactors owing to its high strength, toughness, and resistance to neutron irradiation; however, its thermal conductivity is lower than that of other metals. This study fabricates RAFM steel–copper composites using three-dimensional (3D) woven copper fibers with different volume fractions as a preform to improve the thermal conductivity of RAFM steel around the coolant pipes. The microstructural, mechanical, and thermal properties of the developed composites and the correlations between them are experimentally investigated. Finite element simulations were also conducted on the composites comprising 3D woven copper fibers to evaluate the effective thermal conductivity. The factors that improve the effective thermal conductivity of RAFM steel–copper composites are discussed through a comparison with copper-powder composites with comparable volumes. This study demonstrates the manufacturing of composites with excellent thermal and mechanical properties using various 3D woven structures as preforms.

Effect of fillers and weave architecture hybridization on the impact performance of 3D woven hybrid green composites

AbstractThe eco‐friendly characteristics of green composites not only make them economically and technically viable but also contribute to the reduction of pollution. Green composites are developed by combining degradable fibers (primarily cellulosic materials) with natural resins. A disadvantage of green composites is their lower mechanical strength. To address this issue, 3D woven reinforcement along with fillers can be used to enhance the mechanical properties of green composites. In the current study, three different types of novel 3D woven hybrid structures, that is, hybrid through the thickness (HB‐1 (TT), novel woven layer‐to‐layer structure (HB‐2 (LL)), and layer‐to‐layer structure with double warp yarn (HB‐3 (LL)) were developed. Composites were fabricated using the compression molding technique. Three different concentrations (2%, 5%, and 8%) of nano clay (nanoparticles) were used as fillers and mixed in the green epoxy resin. Pendulum (Charpy) and drop weight impact tests of the composites were performed. The results showed that by the addition of nano particles the impact properties were increased. Nanoparticles showed a significant effect on impact strength. Charpy impact test results showed that the HB‐3 (LL) composite sample with 8% nanofillers showed the highest impact performance, while the HB‐1 (TT) composite sample with 8% nanofillers showed the highest impact performance during the drop weight impact test. By comparing the impact strength of the present work with that of similar research previously published, it is evident that our study achieved a remarkable improvement of 19.17%. This increase is due to the novel structures and nano fillers in the composite.Highlights Eco‐friendly green composites: economically feasible, minimizes pollution. Adding 3D woven structures to green composites improves their mechanical properties. Composite materials with nano clay fillers have increased impact resistance. The highest impact performance is shown by HB‐3 (LL) composites with 8% nanofillers.

Modelling low-velocity impact damage and compression after impact of 3D woven structures considering compaction

A novel finite element modelling approach is presented which incorporates representative binder yarn compaction, for simulating the low-velocity impact (LVI) and compression after impact (CAI) response of 3D woven layer-to-layer carbon/epoxy composite architectures. Simulations of out-of-plane drop-weight impact tests were performed at energies of 32 J and 42 J. Warp and weft layers were modelled as continuous plies and three different approaches were explored to model the binder reinforcement; (i) with a rectangular cross-section and non-compacted, (ii) with an elliptical cross-section and non-compacted, and (iii) an elliptical cross-section which accounts for compaction. Predictions were compared with experimental results from literature and it is shown that modelling the binder reinforcement as an elliptical cross-section with compaction leads to a predicted damage area, on the impacted side, which is within 2%, and the non-impacted side within 6% of experimental measurements. The predicted CAI strength is within 11% of the experimental values.

Auxetic behavior of 3D woven warp, weft, and bidirectional interlock structures

ABSTRACT Natural fibers are gaining importance due to environmental concerns and sustainability issues. However, their mechanical performance is not up to the mark. To overcome this problem, natural fiber-based 3D woven structures are used in structural applications. The mechanical performance of 3D woven structures can be further enhanced by adding auxetic mechanisms to the structures. Auxetic structures have exceptional mechanical properties due to a negative Poisson’s ratio. In the present study, 3D woven orthogonal warp, weft, and bidirectional interlock structures were developed with jute yarn, and the effect of interlocking pattern on the auxeticity and different mechanical properties (tensile, stiffness, tear) of the structures was investigated. The results revealed that the 3D warp interlock structure showed the highest auxeticity, while the bidirectional interlock depicted the least auxeticity. Due to higher auxeticity, the thickness of the warp interlock structure was increased after applying force to it. The change in the thickness of the woven structure also increases its energy dissipation capability. Furthermore, structures having higher auxeticity also manifest higher tensile, stiffness, and tear properties as compared to other structures. The results are also statistically analyzed using one-way ANOVA (Tukey).

SIMULATION OF THE SEGMENT FILLING INSERTION FABRICS AT THE YARN LEVEL

Fabrics with segment filling insertion are finding application in several traditional luxurious textiles, clothing, and in the latest time as well for smart textiles. Segment filling allows the integration of conductive yarns for contacting areas, keeping the textile character of the structures. This work presents a method for 3D modeling woven structures with segment filling at the yarn level. The pattern image is analyzed by an image processing tool, written in Python, and used to create the initial weaving information. After that, the different regions are filled with suitable preselected weave types, such as plain, twill, or others. Finally, this data is used to compute the 3D coordinates of the weft and warp yarns, and saved in a suitable format. The 3D visualization is done by the TexMind Viewer, which allows its advanced version export in various formats for FEM, CFD, and other computations.

Investigating the impact of different machinability processes and fibre architecture on the bearing performance of pin-loaded textile structural composites for automotive applications: Experimental and finite element analysis

The present study aims to investigate the effect of different machinability processes such as drilling, abrasive water jet machining (AWJM), and laser beam machining (LBM) along with different fibre architectures on the behavior of machined hole, bearing strength (joint performance), and failure mechanism of different textile fibre-reinforced structural composites (TFRSC) fabricated using glass, basalt, and sisal fibres suitable for automotive applications. Different structural preforms such as chopped fibre, unidirectional (UD), bidirectional (2D), and three-dimensional (3D) woven orthogonal structures were developed and subsequently converted to their respective composite forms using the vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding (VARTM) process. Morphological damage evaluation and fractography of the developed composite materials were carried out by optical microscopic analysis. The experimental observations revealed that the basalt fibre reinforced textile structural composite (BFRTSC) specimens exhibited the highest bearing strength compared to glass fibre reinforced textile structural composites (GFRTSC) and sisal fibre reinforced textile structural composites (SFRTSC) for all the processes. The bearing strength of composites was in the order of 3D > chopped > 2D > UD, respectively. Additionally, a novel methodical mechanics-based approach was introduced to develop the finite element modeling (FEM) mesoscale model using SOLIDWORKS to study the bearing response of pin-loaded TFRSC. The well-established 3D Hashin's failure and Puck's failure models were used to predict the woven-based composite material damage modes, and it was implemented through a user subroutine along with LS-DYNA. The bearing response predicted by the FEM simulation was found in a good agreement with the experimental observations.

Impact of auxeticity on mechanical properties of3Dwoven auxetic reinforced thermoplastic composites

Abstract3D woven composites are currently used in high‐tech applications due to their better mechanical properties than 2D laminated composites. To further enhance the mechanical performance of 3D woven composites, auxetic structures can be used as reinforcement. The auxetic structures showed better mechanical properties due to bidimensional energy dissipation capability. Orthogonal 3D woven structures showed inherent auxetic nature, however, the use of brittle thermoset resins in composites fully limits their auxeticity. To overcome this issue, three types of 3D woven auxetic structures (warp, weft, and bidirectional interlocks) were developed and used as reinforcement with thermoplastic resins (PC and PVB). Auxeticity of woven reinforcement, and tensile, flexural (3‐point), and short beam shear (SBS) tests of composites were conducted. Auxeticity results revealed that the warp interlock structure showed the highest auxeticity, while the bidirectional interlock structure exhibited the least auxeticity due to the high number of intersections and crimp %. Furthermore, warp interlock composite structure showed 47%, 49.5%, and 37% higher tensile, flexural, and shear strength values, respectively than bidirectional interlock structure in warp direction with PC resin. The overall results showed that auxetic reinforcement improved the mechanical performance of 3D woven composites.

Effect of woven structure and aramid binder yarn on the flexural performance of carbon/aramid fiber hybrid three‐dimensional woven composites

AbstractThree‐dimensional (3D) woven textile‐reinforced composites have drawn much attention because of their specific geometries, improved composite interlayer strength, and impact‐resistance performance. In this study, three types of 3D woven structures with different binder‐yarn ratios and paths were designed based on a traditional dobby‐weaving loom with a special weft‐interlock structural design. Carbon/aramid fiber‐reinforced plastic (CAFRP) composites with carbon warp, weft, and aramid binder yarns, as well as carbon fiber‐reinforced plastic (CFRP) composites were reinforced using the three types of woven structures and consolidated with epoxy resin. The quasi‐static and dynamic flexural performance of these 3D woven composites were experimentally investigated using a three‐point bending test and a low‐velocity drop‐weight impact test. Nondestructive ultrasonic C‐scan and X‐ray microcomputed tomography were applied to characterize the failure mode of the impacted composites. Woven structure and aramid binder yarn with a coarse count have a coupling effect on the quasi‐static flexural performance of the 3D woven CAFRP composites. A larger volume combined with a smaller through‐thickness waviness degree of aramid binder yarn has a similar effect with a smaller volume combined with a larger waviness degree. Introducing aramid binder yarn in the hybrid composites lowered the quasi‐static flexural performance to a certain extent (0.28%–47.74% and 5.29%–49.63% for flexural modulus and strength, respectively) but increased the impact performance significantly (e.g., increasing 23.6%–92.7% peak‐load values under 6‐J impacts). A larger volume combined with a smaller waviness degree of the aramid binder yarn introduced in these woven structures contributed more to impact‐resistance and damage‐tolerance performance.

Development of three-dimensional woven weft interlock carbon-fiber-reinforced plastic composites and experimental investigation on their out-of-plane flexural performance

Developing three-dimensional (3D) woven composites using various woven structures is important in the advanced composite research field. In this study, carbon-fiber 3D woven textile-reinforced epoxy–resin composites using four different woven structures (such as 2.5D, 3D-a, 3D-b, and 3D-c) were designed and fabricated based on a dobby-weaving loom, and vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding technology. In these 3D woven structures, part of weft insertions serves as binder yarns with a special weft interlock structural design, different weft-to-binder yarn ratios are obtained. Out-of-plane quasistatic three-point bending tests and dynamic low-velocity drop-weight impact tests were conducted on these woven composites to study the effect of woven structure on their flexural performance. Nondestructive ultrasonic C-scan and X-ray microcomputed tomography were applied to characterize the failure modes of the post impacted composites. We found that woven structures affect the flexural performance and failure mode of the developed composites, these structures with lower in-plane and binder yarn waviness exhibited higher quasistatic–flexural performance; 3D-c structure with serious in-plane yarn waviness combined with through-thickness binder yarn path exhibited superior impact resistance than other structures and survived more from composite through-thickness cracks and binder yarn breakage failures. Proper structural design is a key to improving flexural performance in specific engineering applications.

Three-dimensional narrow woven fabric with in-plane auxetic behavior

Different auxetic structures and auxetic phenomena are continuously explored by researchers in the field of textiles with enhanced properties for broader application areas. However, developing three-dimensional (3D) auxetic structures by using weaving technology is a real challenge compared to knitting and non-weaving techniques. This research work reports a novel approach to develop 3D woven structures with in-plane auxetic behavior. A conventional 3D multilayer orthogonal through-the-thickness structure was converted into a 3D auxetic woven structure. The structure was designed with three different yarn components to incorporate auxetic geometry. One type of yarn was used in the warp direction, while the other two-yarn systems, comprised of fine elastic yarn and coarse binding yarn, were used in the weft direction. The auxetic geometry achieved resembles the reentrant hexagon by the unusual arrangement of warp yarns. For an in-depth study of the structure, nine fabric samples were fabricated by using a conventional semi-automatic weaving machine with four different influencing parameters. The developed samples were then tested on a tensile testing machine to evaluate their mechanical and auxetic behavior. The results show that the 3D fabrics have a negative Poisson’s ratio (NPR) even at higher tensile strain and that the appropriate binding to the warp yarn diameter can produce a higher NPR. In addition, the repeat size of the elastic weft yarn, bending stiffness of the binding yarn, and stretch percentage of the elastic weft yarn can highly affect the NPR of the fabric. Furthermore, among all the 3D woven fabrics developed with different structural parameters, the maximum NPR achieved was –1.61.

Effect of weaving parameters on fiber structure of 3D woven preforms: A Micro-CT investigation

The fiber structure of three-dimensional (3D) woven preform is generally complex due to the contact interactions and micro-scale deformations of the yarns during the weaving process. The present study explores the effect of weaving parameters on the fiber architecture of 3D woven preforms. Two groups of samples were prepared and observed using micro‐computed tomography (Micro-CT) technology. Semantic segmentation of Micro-CT images was conducted using deep learning algorithm to create explicit models of different yarn systems. Two novel indicators were proposed for quantifying the changes of weft yarn position and warp/binder yarn path. This work clarifies the micro-scale deformation mechanisms of 3D woven structures. The influence of weaving parameters including weft density and weaving structure on the geometric variations of fiber structures was analyzed. The connection between weaving parameters and unit cell variations was established within the scope of this study. The conclusions of this paper would be helpful for the design of preforms with stable fiber structure.

3D Woven Textile Structural Polymer Composites: Effect of Resin Processing Parameters on Mechanical Performance.

This work presents the manufacture of polymer composites using 3D woven structures (orthogonal, angle interlock and warp interlock) with glass multifilament tows and epoxy as the resin. The mechanical properties were analyzed by varying the processing parameters, namely, add-on percentage, amount of hardener, curing time, curing temperature and molding pressure, at four different levels during the composite fabrication for three different 3D woven structures. The mechanical properties of composites are affected by resin infusion or resin impregnation. Resin infusion depends on many processing conditions (temperature, pressure, viscosity and molding time), the structure of the reinforcement and the compatibility of the resin with the reinforcement. The samples were tested for tensile strength, tensile modulus, impact resistance and flexural strength. Optimal process parameters were identified for different 3D-woven-structure-based composites for obtaining optimal results for tensile strength, tensile modulus, impact resistance and flexural strength. The tensile strength, elongation at break and tensile modulus were found to be at a maximum for the angle interlock structure among the various 3D woven composites. A composition of 55% matrix (including 12% of hardener added) and 45% fiber were found to be optimal for the tensile and impact performance of 3D woven glass–epoxy composites. A curing temperature of about 140 °C seemed to be optimal for glass–epoxy composites. Increasing the molding pressure up to 12 bar helped with better penetration of the resin, resulting in higher tensile strength, modulus and impact performance. The optimal conditions for the best flexural performance in 3D woven glass–epoxy composites were 12% hardener, 140 °C curing temperature, 900 s curing time and 12 bar molding pressure.

Research on development of 3D woven textile-reinforced composites and their flexural behavior

In this study, a new weaving technology with a modified heddle position system based on a self-built three-dimensional (3D) weaving loom is designed, and four typical 3D woven-structure textile groups are manufactured: layer-to-layer orthogonal weaving, through-thickness orthogonal weaving, layer-to-layer angle-interlock weaving, and through-thickness angle-interlock weaving. The new weaving technology has great potential for manufacturing various 3D woven structures effectively and efficiently. The fabricated 3D woven textile-reinforced epoxy-resin composites undergo quasi-static three-point bending tests to study the influence of the woven structure on the flexural performance and failure modes along the textile warp and weft directions. The composites along the weft direction (weft-direction beams) have a larger flexural modulus but smaller failure strain compared with the warp direction (warp-direction beams) for all woven-structure types. Among the designed 3D textile composites, the angle-interlock woven structures have a larger flexural strength (50%), modulus (40%), and failure resistance than have the orthogonal-woven structures. Overall, the through-thickness angle-interlock woven structure has the best flexural-failure resistance among all textile structures, and is the optimal structural design based on this modified weaving technology.

Effect of Microcracks on the Tensile Properties of 3D Woven Composites

This study provides an experimental investigation on the effect of microcracks on the tensile properties of 3D woven composites. A four-step experimental procedure using the combination of micro-XCT, acoustic emission (AE) and digital image correlation (DIC) is here proposed. Typical tensile damage behaviors were characterized by the stress–strain curves, AE signal analysis and DIC full field strain measurement. Due to a typical four stages stress–strain behavior, phenomena of stiffness degradation and stiffness hardening were successively found during the tensile process. Samples with various damage levels were produced by the in situ AE monitoring. Their 3D microcrack morphologies show the crack initiation, propagation process and the damage modes. Detectable damages initiated during the stress range from 65.98% to 72.93% σs. The cracks volume fraction (CVF) shows a positive correlation relationship with the corresponding tensile load. Moreover, the CVF was used to characterize the degree of damage. The samples with various phased damages were tested again in the fourth step to obtain their residual modulus and residual strength. Detected microcracks have little influence on the residual strength, while the residual modulus witnesses a regular decrease along with the damage increase. The effect of microcracks on the tensile properties is characterized by the relationships between the gradually increased damages and the corresponding residual properties which provide a foundation for damage evaluation of 3D woven structures in service.

Development of Multilayer Woven Fabrics for the Adoptive Geometry Composite Structure

In this study nine multilayer 3D woven structures were produced using polyamide filament yarns both in the warp and weft direction. Three different weaves: plain, 1/3 twill and 3/1 rib in the middle layer, and plain weave in both the top and bottom layers were produced. All specimens were developed on a narrow weaving machine equipped with multi beams and creel options. The samples were tested for tensile strength, air permeability, compressibility, resilience, bending and shear stiffness. Better compressibility was observed in 3/1 warp rib, followed by 1/3 twill and plain weave in the middle layer. Shear stiffness and bending rigidity were higher for those fabrics which had a plain weave in all layers and higher filling density. The air permeability was higher for low weft density, plain weave and its derivative 3/1 warp rib in the middle layer. Tensile strength was higher for those fabrics which were produced with higher weft densities.

Multi-scale strength and buckling analysis of 3D woven composite spherical shells subjected to hydrostatic pressure

3D woven composites are considered as the ideal materials for subsea pressure shells owing to their exhibit excellent out-of-plane properties of delamination resistance and compressive damage resistance, which greatly improves the bearing capacity of the structure. This paper presents the influence of the radius-to-thickness ratio and the initial defects on the 3D woven composite spherical shells subjected to external hydrostatic pressure using the multi-scale finite element and theoretical methods. Two kinds of typical 3D woven structures, curved shallow-crossing linking 2.5D, and straight shallow-crossing linking 2.5D, are selected. The results show that the proposed multi-scale finite element method is capable of accurately predicting the strength and buckling behavior of 3D woven composite spherical shells under external hydrostatic pressure loadings, validated by the comparison of theoretical predictions. Furthermore, the fabric structures, radius-to-thickness ratio, and initial defects affect importantly the mechanical behavior of 3D woven composites pressure shells.