Application Of 3D Scanning Research Articles

Possibility for Application of 3D Scanning to Evaluate the Opening Behavior of Side Airbags in Interaction with the Human Body Model and Car Seat

Possibility for Application of 3D Scanning to Evaluate the Opening Behavior of Side Airbags in Interaction with the Human Body Model and Car Seat

Smartphone three-dimensional imaging for body composition assessment using non-rigid avatar reconstruction.

Modern digital anthropometry applications utilize smartphone cameras to rapidly construct three-dimensional humanoid avatars, quantify relevant anthropometric variables, and estimate body composition. In the present study, 131 participants ([73 M, 58 F] age 33.7 ± 16.0 y; BMI 27.3 ± 5.9 kg/m2, body fat 29.9 ± 9.9%) had their body composition assessed using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and a smartphone 3D scanning application using non-rigid avatar reconstruction. The performance of two new body fat % estimation equations was evaluated through reliability and validity statistics, Bland-Altman analysis, and equivalence testing. In the reliability analysis, the technical error of the measurement and intraclass correlation coefficient were 0.5-0.7% and 0.996-0.997, respectively. Both estimation equations demonstrated statistical equivalence with DXA based on ±2% equivalence regions and strong linear relationships (Pearson's r 0.90; concordance correlation coefficient 0.89-0.90). Across equations, mean absolute error and standard error of the estimate values were ~ 3.5% and ~ 4.2%, respectively. No proportional bias was observed. While continual advances are likely, smartphone-based 3D scanning may now be suitable for implementation for rapid and accessible body measurement in a variety of applications.

Application of 3D scanning and computer simulation techniques to assess the shape accuracy of welded components

Application of 3D scanning and computer simulation techniques to assess the shape accuracy of welded components

A robust assessment method of point cloud quality for enhancing 3D robotic scanning

Point clouds are widely used to construct models of workpieces using 3D scanners, especially where high-quality robotic and automatic 3D scanning is required in industries and manufacturing. In recent years, Point Cloud Quality Assessment (PCQA) has garnered increasing attention as it provides quality scores for entire point clouds, addressing issues such as downsampling and compression distortions. However, current PCQA methods cannot provide specific and local quality scores, which are necessary to facilitate rescanning and recompletion in 3D robotic scanning. Additionally, 3D data produced by robotic view-planning algorithms are usually considered the final result, where PCQA is typically not involved. In this paper, we bridge the gap between PCQA methods and practical robotic 3D scanning. We propose a no-reference PCQA method that recognizes sparse regions during 3D scanning, providing both local and overall quality scores. Unlike traditional methods that primarily consider density as a key metric, our method assumes that an expected 3D scan will have a uniformly distributed point cloud on surfaces. We analyze the quality of points by using geometric information from surfaces fitted to these points, which are mapped to a 2D distribution based on specified distances and angles. We conducted experiments on various datasets, including both synthetic and public datasets, to evaluate the accuracy and robustness of our method. The results show that our method can represent the quality on surfaces more accurately and robustly than density calculation methods. Additionally, it outperforms most existing PCQA methods in scenarios of downsampling, which is a common challenge in high-quality 3D scanning applications. The performance of our quality enhancement experiments on practical 3D scanning, conducted towards the end of our study, demonstrates significant potential for real-world applications. The related code is released at https://github.com/leihui6/PQA.

3D scanning a crime scene to enhance juror understanding of Bloodstain Pattern Analysis evidence

There are numerous crime scene investigation applications of 3D scanning that have been previously documented. This paper documents the application of a 3D point cloud in the presentation of Bloodstain Pattern Analysis evidence to mock jurors. 150 mock jurors viewed a presentation of Bloodstain Pattern Analysis evidence from a murder trial in the UK. After viewing the evidence, the participants were tested on their knowledge of the evidence and repeated the test again 2 weeks later; to simulate criminal trial conditions; whereby there is a time lapse between the initial viewing of evidential material and deliberation. This paper found that the mock jurors who additionally viewed a 3D flythrough of a point cloud of the crime scene, better retained knowledge of the evidence over time, reported a greater ability to visualise the crime scene and had higher levels of interest in the evidence. Crucially, the 3D flythrough group did not report different levels of confidence in the accuracy of their memories of the evidence, nor different levels of emotional arousal to the group that viewed the evidence without the 3D presentation. Together, these findings suggest that 3D scanning of crime scenes, and the resultant point cloud’s presentation to jurors, could add further value to the justice system when spatial information, such as Bloodstain Pattern Analysis evidence, is presented.

IPhone-Based Cartilage Topography Scanning Yields Similar Results to Computed Tomography Scanning

To investigate the feasibility and accuracy of 3-dimensional (3D) iPhone scans using commercially available applications compared with computed tomography (CT) for mapping chondral surface topography of the knee. Ten cadaveric dysplastic trochleae, 16 patellae, and 24 distal femoral condyles (DFCs) underwent CT scans and 3D scans using 3 separate optical scanning applications on an iPhone X. The 3D surface models were compared by measuring surface-to-surface least distance distribution of overlapped models using a validated 3D-3D registration volume merge method. The absolute least mean square distances for the iPhone-generated models from each scanning application were calculated in comparison to CT models using a point-to-surface distance algorithm allowing regional "inside/outside" measurement of the absolute distance between models. Only 1 of the 3 scanning applications created models usable for quantitative analysis. Overall, there was a median absolute least mean square distance between the usable model and CT-generated models of 0.18 mm. The trochlea group had a significantly lower median absolute least mean square distance compared with the DFC group (0.14 mm [interquartile range, 0.13-0.17] vs 0.19 mm [0.17-0.25], P= .002). iPhone models were smaller compared with CT models (negative signed distances) for all trochleae, 83% of DFCs, and 69% of patellae. In this study, we found minimal differences between a 3D iPhone scanning application and conventional CT scanning when analyzing surface topography. Emerging 3D iPhone scanning technology can create accurate, inexpensive, real-time 3D models of the intended target. Surface topography evaluation may be useful in graft selection during surgical procedures such as osteochondral allograft transplantation.

Extrinsic Calibration for a Modular 3D Scanning Quality Validation Platform with a 3D Checkerboard.

Optical 3D scanning applications are increasingly used in various medical fields. Setups involving multiple adjustable systems require repeated extrinsic calibration between patients. Existing calibration solutions are either not applicable to the medical field or require a time-consuming process with multiple captures and target poses. Here, we present an application with a 3D checkerboard (3Dcb) for extrinsic calibration with a single capture. The 3Dcb application can register captures with a reference to validate measurement quality. Furthermore, it can register captures from camera pairs for point-cloud stitching of static and dynamic scenes. Registering static captures from TIDA-00254 to its reference from a Photoneo MotionCam-3D resulted in an error (root mean square error ± standard deviation) of 0.02 mm ± 2.9 mm. Registering a pair of Photoneo MotionCam-3D cameras for dynamic captures resulted in an error of 2.2 mm ± 1.4 mm. These results show that our 3Dcb implementation provides registration for static and dynamic captures that is sufficiently accurate for clinical use. The implementation is also robust and can be used with cameras with comparatively low accuracy. In addition, we provide an extended overview of extrinsic calibration approaches and the application's code for completeness and service to fellow researchers.

IMPACT OF POWDER COATING TYPES ON DIMENSIONAL ACCURACY IN OPTICAL 3D SCANNING PROCESS

This research article aims to investigate the impact of various types of powder coatings on the resulting dimensional accuracy in the optical 3D scanning process. The experimental study utilises the GOM ATOS II Triple Scan scanner with measuring volume MV100 to conduct a series of measurements. Different powder coatings, varying in composition and application area, are sequentially applied to the measured etalon. The digitised data is then imported into the GOM Inspect software, enabling necessary measurements and result evaluation. This paper leverages engineering knowledge and proficiency with the GOM Inspect metrology software. The anticipated outcomes of this experiment are expected to offer novel insights into the influence of diverse powder coatings on dimensional accuracy. These findings can have practical implications across industries where measurement accuracy is crucial. Furthermore, this research can serve as a foundation for future advancements in the field and provide valuable guidance for selecting the appropriate scanning powder for specific optical 3D scanning applications.

Applications of 3D scanning and digital image correlation in structural experiments

AbstractThe primary aim of the present study is to explore the use, advantages and potential of two advanced data acquisition techniques – 3D scanning and digital image correlation (DIC), in the testing of metallic structures. 3D scanning is a novel method for capturing the full outer geometry of an object. It is being increasingly used in experimental studies for the determination of dimensional parameters and the characterisation of local and global imperfections, examples of which are given and discussed. Digital image correlation (DIC) is a rapidly evolving technology for the full‐field measurement of the displacements and strains over a surface. A brief introduction to DIC and its workflow is firstly provided. Example applications of DIC in various scales of experiments, including material tests, structural element tests and full‐scale structural system tests, are subsequently discussed. These new‐generation data acquisition techniques enable structural researchers to gain a deeper insight into the behaviour of metallic structures in experimental research.

Validation of low-cost mobile phone applications and comparison with professional imaging systems for three-dimensional facial imaging: A pilot study

PurposeThe objective of this study was to investigate the accuracies of three-dimensional (3D) facial scanning mobile phone applications as compared to professional 3D facial imaging systems. Materials and MethodsA manikin head model was used as the subject for comparing six 3D facial imaging systems which comprised three professional 3D scanners (3dMDface, Artec Eva and Vectra H2) and three mobile phone applications (Bellus3D, ScandyPro and Hedges). For each system, five scans were taken to analyse (1) linear accuracy using 9 measurements (2) global and (3) regional 3D accuracy of the scanned surface by root mean square (RMS) and colour map analysis. Another set of five scans was repeated by a second operator to evaluate the inter-operator reproducibility for each system. ResultsAll the facial imaging systems had absolute errors lesser than 1.0 mm for the linear measurements. The technical error of measurement (TEM) for inter-examiner and intra-examiner linear measurements were within acceptable limits. Artec Eva, Vectra H2 and Scandy Pro had poor global 3D trueness (RMS > 1.0 mm) but good 3D regional trueness (RMS < 1.0 mm). 3dMDface, Bellus3D Face App and Heges had good global and regional 3D trueness. All the facial imaging systems had good global and regional 3D precision and reproducibility (RMS < 1.0 mm). ConclusionThis study demonstrated that mobile phone 3D scanning applications had comparable trueness, precision and reproducibility to professional systems. Colour map analysis supplemented the use of the RMS value to demonstrate facial regions of significant deviation. Clinicians should also consider the specific area or region of inaccuracies for each system to determine whether the chosen system is appropriate for the clinical condition or procedure. Clinical SignificanceMobile phone 3D facial imaging applications may be as accurate as 3D professional facial scanning systems for craniomaxillofacial purposes. However, the choice of the system may vary depending on the specific area of interest.

Application of 3D-scanning for structural and geometric assessment of aerospace structures

The geometric assessment of physical demonstrators are an integral part of several research projects conducted at the Chair of Aircraft Design at the Technical University of Munich. The projects range from several research UAVs, a sailplane morphing wing to propellers. There are different project objectives like the assessment of manufacturing deviations, design and function validation as well as reverse engineering of aerodynamic surfaces for model adaptation and simulation in the projects. Nevertheless, mutual approaches and solutions have been identified. Therefore joint development efforts are undertaken using 3D-scanning technology for data collection and evaluation. This technology captures the surface of a given object typically as a point cloud with comparably high accuracy. Since a manual evaluation process bears disadvantages in terms of reproducibility, custom post-processing software tools are developed. Global geometry data, like wing platform data, as well as airfoils can be extracted from a surface point cloud to analyze UAV wings or propellers. Airfoils can be derotated, normed and smoothed for aerodynamic analysis with low-fidelity aerodynamic tools, such as XFLR5 or XFOIL. For the analysis of morphing airfoil structures, the scanned geometry is aligned with the desired design airfoil shape so they can be compared. In this paper, analysis methods and several example results are presented.

Development of the high angular resolution 360° LiDAR based on scanning MEMS mirror

Light detection and ranging (LiDAR) using various operational principles has been applied in many fields, e.g., robotics navigation, autonomous vehicles, unmanned aerial flyers, land surveying, etc. The multichannel LiDAR system is of great importance in the field of autonomous driving due to its larger field of view (FoV). However, the number of transceivers limits the vertical angular resolution of multichannel LiDAR systems and makes them costly. On the other hand, the emergence of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) mirrors may provide a highly promising solution to a low-cost, high angular resolution LiDAR system. We have demonstrated a MEMS mirror-based 360° LiDAR system with high angular resolution and will present the detailed design process and obtained experimental results in this paper. With the combination of the MEMS mirror and a rotation platform for the LiDAR system, a 360° × 8.6° (horizontal × vertical) FoV was achieved. Compared with existing commercial multichannel 360° LiDAR systems, our system has 13.8 times better angular resolution than the Velodyne HDL-64 LiDAR sensor. The experimental results verified an excellent performance of 0.07° × 0.027° (horizontal × vertical) angular resolution, which enhances the panoramic scanning and imaging capability of the LiDAR system, potentially providing more accurate 3D scanning applications in areas such as autonomous vehicles, indoor surveying, indoor robotics navigation, etc.

Studies on the Metrological Need and Capabilities of 3D Scanning Technologies

3D scanning technologies are deployed toward developing a digital 3D model for Additive Manufacturing (AM) applications. It collects data, turning it into a 3D model that uses designated 3D printing processes. Many scanners, ranging from low-cost alternatives to professional series that are far more accurate and reliable, are now available to assist in bringing designs to reality. 3D scanning solutions enable the appropriate measurement of 3D physical parts into the virtual world, allowing factory production teams and corporate offices to share critical design information. These techniques are utilized everywhere in the design process, including product design and development, reverse engineering, quality control and quality assurance. The manufacturing sector can decrease costs while accelerating time to market and resolving quality issues. This study investigates the metrological need as per the advancements of 3D scanners. The procedural steps of the 3D scanners, along with specific metrological components and soft tools for 3D scanning, are discussed briefly. Finally, various 3D scanning applications are identified and discussed in detail. Because of the overall relative advantages of these non-contact measurement techniques, 3D metrological tools are crucial for modern production. Almost every sector aims for smaller, more complex components, which are more vulnerable to contamination or injury from even the slightest touch with a probe. The market is driven by global Research and Development (R&amp;D) investment to develop game-changing technologies and solutions. Precision inspection and quality control are significant market drivers for industry progress. Smart factories will have lifetime access to 3D metrological data, allowing them to enhance quality and gain a competitive advantage in the marketplace.

Application of 3D scanning technology in Royal Malaysian Air Force Industrial Revolution 4.0‐based aircraft maintenance

Abstract3D scanning is rapidly becoming a key maintenance tool. Aerospace was a pioneer in adopting 3D scanning technology because aircraft manufacture and maintenance require precision. Monitoring deterioration, removing components for maintenance, and verifying covert operations are not practical or helpful without technology. Ultra‐precise 3D scanning is needed to ensure aeroplane airworthiness. The Royal Malaysian Air Force is facing issues maintaining the structural integrity and time‐consuming manual inspections, which exposes technicians to error and delays aircraft maintenance. Furthermore, the Sukhoi Su‐30MKM fighter jet has updated avionics, missiles, and bombs. Sukhoi's structural integrity is under jeopardy after a decade of service. This study describes the process of scanning aircraft in 3D and creating 3D representations in Su‐30MKM maintenance. The study also covers the digital transformation of aircraft construction into a model. As a result, the proposed 3D Scanning Maintenance System has assisted the maintenance team to accelerate reverse engineering, aircraft maintenance operations. Also, the 3D scanning application increases the effectiveness of repairing and maintaining Su‐30MKM in line with the Royal Malaysian Air Force's mission readiness to embrace Industrial Revolution 4.0.

Exploring the potential of 3D scanning in Industry 4.0: An overview

A 3D scanner is a non-contact, non-destructive digital device that uses a light line/laser to accurately capture the shape of a physical object into Computer-Aided Design (CAD) data. It generates a point cloud or a set of data points in a coordinate system that accurately depicts a physical object's size and shape. The urge of human beings to build and recreate 3D objects is an essential requirement in the context of Industry 4.0. In Industry 4.0, 3D scanners are helpful for designing, assessing the minor features of any product, capturing freeform, and providing precise point clouds for complicated geometry and curved surfaces. Today advanced technologies are being introduced in industries, and 3D scanning technology is one of the latest emerging technologies. The situation has progressed significantly, and the ever-emerging world of 3D technology still disrupts a variety of sectors. This paper discusses 3D Scanning, its working process, and its adoption for reverse engineering and Industry 4.0 culture. Finally, this paper covers essential features, traits, and applications of 3D Scanning for Industry 4.0. Using different methods, 3D Scanning can collect information about an item, about an object's highness, breadth, and depth. 3D scanners are available on the market from high-end possibilities. They have different resolutions, and now they provide details of the scan to superimpose colour on an object, but the industry wants them to be developed for other quality attributes.

Stabilisation of waterlogged archaeological wood: the application of structured-light 3D scanning and micro computed tomography for analysing dimensional changes

Stabilisation of waterlogged archaeological wood: the application of structured-light 3D scanning and micro computed tomography for analysing dimensional changes

Stabilisation of waterlogged archaeological wood: the application of structured-light 3D scanning and micro computed tomography for analysing dimensional changes

Cultural heritage objects made of wood can be preserved under waterlogged conditions for many years, where decay is slowed down and the wood structure is more or less completely filled with water. Depending on the degree of degradation, finds may collapse and shrink when they are allowed to dry in an uncontrolled manner after excavation, leading to total loss of the object and its information. Conservation measures are taken to prevent damage of objects and dimensional stability is an important criterion. In this study, structured-light 3D scanning and micro-computed tomography were used to analyse the dimensional stability of wood after conservation, as well as its long-term stability. 83 samples from a reference collection established between 2008 and 2011 allowed this comparative study of the most common conservation methods at that time. The effects of conservation methods using alcohol-ether resin, melamine-formaldehyde (Kauramin 800®), lactitol/trehalose, saccharose, and silicone oil on dimensional stability were investigated. In addition, different polyethylene glycol (PEG) treatments with subsequent freeze-drying were also investigated: one-stage with PEG 2000, two-stage with PEG 400 and PEG 4000 and three-stage with PEG 400, PEG 1500 and PEG 4000. The data received from analyses of both volume and surface gave detailed information about the success of each conservation method. Attempts were made to quantify the damage patterns, specifically shrinkage, collapse, and cracks. While PEG and freeze-drying, alcohol-ether-resin, as well as the Kauramin 800® method gave the best results, analysis also highlighted the failures of each method.

Evaluating the Accuracy of the Azure Kinect and Kinect v2.

The Azure Kinect represents the latest generation of Microsoft Kinect depth cameras. Of interest in this article is the depth and spatial accuracy of the Azure Kinect and how it compares to its predecessor, the Kinect v2. In one experiment, the two sensors are used to capture a planar whiteboard at 15 locations in a grid pattern with laser scanner data serving as ground truth. A set of histograms reveals the temporal-based random depth error inherent in each Kinect. Additionally, a two-dimensional cone of accuracy illustrates the systematic spatial error. At distances greater than 2.5 m, we find the Azure Kinect to have improved accuracy in both spatial and temporal domains as compared to the Kinect v2, while for distances less than 2.5 m, the spatial and temporal accuracies were found to be comparable. In another experiment, we compare the distribution of random depth error between each Kinect sensor by capturing a flat wall across the field of view in horizontal and vertical directions. We find the Azure Kinect to have improved temporal accuracy over the Kinect v2 in the range of 2.5 to 3.5 m for measurements close to the optical axis. The results indicate that the Azure Kinect is a suitable substitute for Kinect v2 in 3D scanning applications.

Application of 3D scanning and 3D printing in forensic practices - A preliminary survey among forensic practitioners in India

Three-dimensional scanning and printing technologies have influenced our society in recent years. It is gaining favour in forensic science and medicine, as the depth and spatial information are retained when the virtual models are 3D printed. To assess the knowledge, attitude and practice of forensic professionals in India regarding the use of 3D scanning and 3D printing in forensic practice. In this descriptive cross-sectional study, we collected data through online self-administered questionnaire consisting of 20 questions circulated among the forensic practitioners in India. 64 participants responded, out of those, 54 were forensic medicine experts and 10 were scientific officers at Govt. Forensic Science Laboratory. The findings highlight the knowledge regarding this technology is limited amongst the forensic practitioners in India. The technology is practised only by the scientific officers at handful laboratories and not by any of the forensic medicine doctors. With developing technologies, there is no doubt that for better investigation of crime in 21st century, 3D technology can be of great aid. This would further encourage researches to include this high potential modality and transform the current forensic practices in India and abroad.

Three-Dimensional (3D) scanning applications for COVID-19 pandemic

Three-Dimensional (3D) scanning applications for COVID-19 pandemic